A Short History of Nearly Everything

by

Bill Bryson

A Short History of Nearly Everything: Chapter 12 Summary & Analysis

Summary
Analysis
In 1955, Charles Hapgood argues that continental drift—the theory that Earth’s landmasses are in motion—is a hoax. He’s arguing against a growing body of scientific work which suggests that the continents originated as a single landmass but have since split and moved. This is based on evidence ranging from the shapes of coastlines to the presence of identical rocks and fossils on both sides of the Atlantic. 
Bryson raises the example of Hapgood to show that scientists are often slow to accept new hypotheses, even if the evidence is right in front of them. Bryson intends to show that dogmatic resistance to new ideas among scientists can dramatically slow down scientific progress. 
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The first credible scientist to advance the idea of continental drift theory is German meteorologist Alfred Wegener, whose work comes to prominence in the years following World War I. In this era, the geological community is at pains to find a theory of how land moves over time that can account for confusing phenomena, such as the varying ages of mountains. The prevailing theory at this time is that land moves, but only up and down, so theoretically all mountains should be roughly the same age. Despite the explanatory power of Wegener’s claims, geologists dismiss them; Wegener is a meteorologist, after all, with little geological training. To explain away Wegener’s ideas, geologists invent bizarre theories without evidence, such as the prehistoric existence of land bridges between continents that allowed animals to migrate across oceans.
Wegener is the first scientist to realize Hutton’s early (and correct, but overlooked) geological intuition that mountains are made by giant land masses smashing into each other. Wegener’s theory that continents drift together and apart makes good sense of a lot of confusing data—for example, why the same fossils are found in disparate parts of the world or why mountains aren’t all the same age. Nonetheless, many geologists are resistant to Wegener’s ideas because they are prejudiced against the insights of non-specialists, even if the insights make good geological sense.
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Wegener’s theories begin to gain traction only in the mid-40s after English geologist Arthur Holmes theorizes how continents move: radioactive warming from deep inside Earth causes convection currents powerful enough to move land masses. This basics of this theory are still accepted today.
Bryson shows that it takes several years for Wegener’s ideas to be accepted by geologists, showing how much dogmatic resistance to new ideas can slow down scientific progress.
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Meanwhile, mineralogist and naval officer Harry Hess discovers during World War II (from military surveying equipment on his ship) that the ocean floor contains canyons, trenches, and Earth’s most extensive mountain range. These mountains, the mid-Atlantic ridge, stretch south from Iceland down below Africa, on to Australia, and across the Pacific to California. Oceanographers also realize that the ocean floor is much younger where the mid-Atlantic range is, but they’re puzzled as to why.
Hess’s findings show once again that the more data scientists uncover (say, about the young age of the mid-Atlantic ridge) the more they realize how limited and erroneous their knowledge is (in this case, about how mountains are formed). This is especially true for Earth’s oceans, which are some of the most under-explored spaces on Earth. 
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Meanwhile, British graduate students Patrick Blackett and S. K. Runcorn also discover that the direction of iron particles in British rock are facing the wrong way. Iron particles in rocks line up with Earth’s magnetic poles when the rock is formed, but the iron particles in the rocks they discovered weren’t facing the right direction—meaning that Britain has moved to where it is from somewhere else. Their findings, however, are largely ignored until British geophysicists Drummond Matthews and Fred Vine combine all these ideas to conclude that the sea floor is spreading apart and that continents are in motion, giving rise to “plate tectonics.”
Despite the fact that evidence in support of continental drift keeps arising across the world (including the direction of iron particles in rocks), many scientists are still close-minded about the idea. Hutton first hypothesizes the idea in the 1700s but fails to express it in a way that anybody could understand, meaning his bad writing significantly sets back progress. When the idea resurfaces in the 20th century, as it does here, geologists are still somewhat dogmatic in their resistance to embracing it—close-mindedness thus also set back scientific progress in this area. The combination of these factors means that it takes over 200 years for plate tectonics research to finally get going.
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Although many geologists resist plate tectonics theory well into the 1970s, scientists now hold that Earth’s crust is made of up to 32 plates that move in different directions and that modern landmasses moved significantly more than initially estimated. Bryson notes that Kazakhstan, for example, was once attached to Norway and New England. Scientists predict that eventually, California will separate and become a Pacific island, while Africa will push up into Europe, replacing the Mediterranean Sea with a mountain range. The scientific community admits that there are still many unexplained mysteries, like why some places—like Denver and parts of Africa—are rising without tectonic activity at all.
Bryson provides two reasons for why the scientific endeavor is never complete: first, Earth is not a static entity. Things are changing all the time, including the face of Earth’s land masses, meaning that ongoing changes will demand scientific analyses as time progresses. Second, theories that explain some phenomena well (say, that mountains are made when tectonic plates smash into each other) still fall short in explaining other phenomena (such as why land masses rise in the middle of tectonic plates, where there is no smashing going on). All this implies that there will always be further need for scientific analysis.
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