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Chapter 5
Themes
Key
LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in Lakota Woman, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work.
Activism and Resistance
Assimilation, Tradition, and Identity
Unity, Inclusion, and Equality
Racism and Sexism
Summary
Analysis
The American Indian Movement (AIM) was a powerful force, captivating many peoples’ interest. Mary’s first encounter with AIM was at a powwow in 1971. It was at this event that Mary first saw Leonard Crow Dog, who caught her attention with his long hair—most men on the reservations had shorter hair at this time.
Leonard’s long hair establishes that there was a cultural revival aspect to the American Indian Movement. Men’s shorter hair was evidence of white society’s influence and the forced assimilation that took place—missionaries cut short the hair of the Native American children when they arrived at mission boarding schools.
Themes
The speeches made at the event resonated with Mary. One man spoke about the genocide and cultural destruction that white society committed—and continues to commit—against Native American peoples. Leonard Crow Dog said that white society has not listened to or sympathized with the words of Native Americans for hundreds of years, so they must “speak with [their] bodies” instead.
The first speaker addressed the genocide of the Native American peoples and cultures and, by discussing both tragedies together in one speech, illustrated how both are cruel and destructive acts. In other words, he made it clear that forcing people to give up their culture and lifestyle is devastating to a group of people. Leonard Crow Dog’s speech was a call for resistance. He said that, because white people have not listened to or cooperated with Native Americans, indigenous people must now take action (instead of simply speaking) in order to make change, even if that means violent confrontation.
Themes
AIM originated in Minnesota in 1968, when its primarily Ojibway leaders focused on improving the conditions for Native Americans living in the slums of Minneapolis and St. Paul. Seeking to reconnect with traditional Native American culture and religious ceremonies, the AIM leaders established connections with the Lakota people, whose isolation helped preserve many traditions. Mary believes that AIM needed both reservation-based and city-based Native Americans to become the force it was.
The shift in AIM’s mission—from focusing only on the plights of urban Native Americans in the Twin Cities to addressing the problems faced by all Native Americans and reviving Native American cultures—shows a decision to be more inclusive of Native American experiences. Simply put, AIM wanted to serve all Native American people, not just the Ojibway of Minneapolis and St. Paul. Part of this decision to have a more inclusive mission was the goal to revive Native American cultures. Mary notes that it was this decision that brought AIM leaders to the Lakota, which helped the movement broaden its scope and become a stronger force. She says that it was thanks to the Lakota’s isolation that they retained more cultural traditions than other tribes, which speaks to the importance of resistance to assimilation. The implication is that the Lakota’s distance from white society is what allowed them to preserve more of their traditional lifestyle.
Themes
Mary credits Black civil rights leaders for some of AIM’s rhetoric. While Native Americans and Black people share the status of being systematically discriminated against and economically subjected by white society, there were differences as well. As Mary puts it, many Black activists argued for the same rights that white people had, whereas “we Indians want out!”
Mary suggests that AIM benefited from the Black civil rights movement, not least because AIM activists based some of their arguments on those of Black civil rights activists. In this way, she shows how the fight for equal rights is an inclusive one: while AIM activists and Black civil rights leaders fought for different things, they were all fighting for equality and could benefit from each other’s work.
Themes
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Mary states that she, along with many other AIM members, hated white people because they were so accustomed to enduring racist hostility and brutality from them. Yet as she met more supporters of AIM, she realized that there were white people dedicated to AIM’s causes.
Although Mary and other AIM activists were initially suspicious of all white people, they eventually realized that there were white people who actively aided them in their fight for Native American civil rights. The implication is that activism is an inclusive activity—anyone can join—and that as activism grows more inclusive, the cause as a whole benefits.
Themes
Romantic relationships abounded between AIM members. The marriages were conducted by medicine men; some lasted a few days, others several years. Mary entered into one such marriage, which lasted until she got pregnant. AIM did not support the use of birth control, as they wanted to increase the Native American population. Not everyone agreed. When Barb went to a government hospital to have her baby, the doctors performed a hysterectomy on her, without her permission. Her baby passed away only two hours after birth.
Mary doesn’t explain why her marriage ended, but one thing is clear: her partner left Mary to care for their child on her own. As Mary has previously explained, single-parenting is not uncommon for Native American women, who are often left to shoulder the heavy responsibility of raising children on their own. Mary adds that AIM was against the use of birth control, as they believed that having more Native American children was an important way to fight against the genocide of indigenous people. One of the ways this genocide was perpetuated was through forced sterilizations, such as Barbara’s. These forced sterilizations performed on Native American women illustrate how racism and sexism overlap to form the oppression that Native American women face. In this instance, Barbara’s reproductive rights were violated because she is Native American, and the doctors exploited her labor and childbirth to sterilize her.
Themes
Throughout her pregnancy, Mary traveled with AIM, which older generations of Native Americans joined as well. While the middle-aged adults were considered a “lost generation” who were too concerned with assimilation, the older generation generally supported AIM. They had a lot of cultural knowledge and wisdom that they passed on to the young generation of AIM members, who started participating in ceremonies like the Sun Dance. Mary is proud that many of the practiced traditions among the AIM were adopted from Lakota culture.
AIM united young Native Americans with tribal elders as the young sought to learn more about the cultural traditions that the older generation maintained. In this way, Mary shows how intergenerational unity was vital for the continuation of cultural knowledge. At the same time, she illustrates how the assimilation of the middle-aged adults to white culture affected the whole community. By assimilating, the middle-aged generation contributed to the loss of cultural knowledge, with wisdom and traditions dying with the older generation. Mary adds that the Lakota were instrumental in the Native American cultural revival that AIM espoused. Because the Lakota had maintained more traditions than other tribes, non-Lakota AIM activists adopted traditions and ceremonies from Lakota culture in order to reconnect with their indigenous heritage. The fact that many Native Americans had to turn to a different tribe to learn more about Native American cultural practices highlights how assimilation and cultural genocide led to the extinction of some tribes’ unique traditions.
Themes
Wherever the AIM members went, the white people of the area—particularly in the Dakotas—were terrified. Gun stores sold out whenever the AIM members arrived in a town, and the white locals started carrying their guns publicly. Mary reflects on the absurdity that it was they, the AIM members, that were feared. After all, Native Americans are—and have always been—the victims. Perhaps the local white people hated AIM because they felt guilty for all that they had done to Native Americans, from stealing their land and exploiting them for cheap labor to stereotyping them and profiting from the tourism.
This passage captures the racism of white society, as white people feared AIM activists simply because they were Native American. Mary believes that the white people’s fear was because of the guilt they carried regarding their crimes against Native Americans—white people knew that Native Americans had many reasons to retaliate and rebel and, now that there was a resistance movement, they feared what Native Americans might do.
Themes
Of course, the AIM members weren’t perfect, and there were some AIM members—or people who claimed to be members—who committed acts that Mary isn’t proud of. But even with its shortcomings, Mary staunchly believes that AIM was a positive and necessary force: it not only set political and cultural goals for Native Americans, but it also lifted their spirits and helped them feel seen and heard.
Mary admits that there were problems within AIM, but overall she believes it was a beneficial movement. It set a precedent of political resistance and cultural appreciation for younger generations; plus, advocating for their rights and celebrating their cultural identity felt empowering to Native American peoples.
Themes
One event that Mary will always remember was the Sun Dance in 1972. It took place at Rosebud, her reservation. The ceremony—which was comprised of flesh offerings, sun-gazing, prayers, and whistles—felt “like a rebirth, like some of the prophesies of the Ghost Dancers coming true.” Although many of the participating men came from tribes that did not traditionally practice this ceremony, Mary believes that it was their way to feel connected to their Native American heritage.
The Ghost Dancers believed that the Ghost Dance (a religious movement that began in the late 1800s) would end colonization and usher in a time of peace and prosperity for Native Americans. At the Sun Dance of 1972, Mary saw Native Americans of various tribes uniting to embrace and celebrate their indigenous identity. Mary implies that she took this unity and cultural celebration as an auspicious sign for the Native American civil rights movement and cultural revival. She also says that this cross-cultural exchange helped individual Native Americans feel more in tune with their indigenous identity, even if the Sun Dance (a Lakota ceremony) isn’t a traditional ritual in their tribe.
Themes
In addition to the ritual, this Sun Dance was an occasion for AIM leaders and members to discuss recent and occurring events. Shortly before the Sun Dance, several Native Americans had been murdered across the country, with perpetrators receiving meager punishments or, in some cases, no punishment at all. Sensing that “it was open season on Indians again,” AIM leaders planned the Trail of Broken Treaties.
The ceremony also served as a way for AIM leaders to discuss future acts of resistance. In this way, these intertribal cultural exchanges fostered unity between members of different tribes. In this instance, the conversations at the Sun Dance led to AIM leaders planning the Trail of Broken Treaties to protest white society’s violence against Native Americans.
Themes
Mary interjects to add that she is proud that this momentous protest was planned at Rosebud, with Bob Burnette, a tribal chairman from Rosebud, playing an integral role in the planning. However, she fears that “the feeling of pride in one’s particular tribe is standing in the way of Indian unity.”
Mary is proud of her Lakota heritage and how Lakota leaders like Bob Burnette were instrumental in the fight for Native American civil rights. But she also acknowledges that too much pride in one’s own tribe can threaten intertribal unity, which she clearly supports. Here, she advocates for pan-indigenous pride over pride in one’s individual tribe, with the implication being that the tribes can accomplish more together than each individual tribe could accomplish on their own in the fight against racism and white society’s oppression of indigenous peoples.
Themes
Part of the significance of the Trail of Broken Treaties was this unity across Native American tribes, as caravans—each with their own spiritual leader—from many tribes made the journey from their homelands to Washington, D.C. Mary’s caravan started at Wounded Knee to symbolically bring the spirits of the murdered Lakota with them on their journey.
One of the most important aspects of the Trail of Broken Treaties was that it embodied intertribal unity. Each tribe that participated had its own caravan and spiritual leader, but all the tribes converged together in Washington, D.C., symbolizing how the tribes, though they were individual and unique nations, were united in standing against the U.S. government and the racism and inequality that oppresses all Native American peoples.
Themes
When the protesters arrived in Washington, D.C., they discovered that the various church groups who had promised the protesters food and accommodation had now rescinded their offers, thanks to government pressure. At first, Mary’s group tried to sleep in an abandoned church, only to discover that it was infested with rats and cockroaches. Suddenly, someone suggested that the group go to the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) building.
The various church groups who rescinded their help presented a setback in the protest. Their help would have aided the Native American activists and would have been an example of how people and organizations of various races and beliefs can work together to advocate for equal rights. Yet, in the end, the church groups succumbed to the government’s expectations and abandoned the protestors. By complying with the government, not only did they risk hurting the Trail of Broken Treaties’ success, but they also likely damaged their relationships with the Native American organizations to whom they had originally promised aid.
Themes
There was an outpouring of support for this idea. The great wave of protesters hurried from the church and poured into the BIA building. Once there, each tribal group selected a room or floor of the building, where they made themselves comfortable and discussed proposals. Every now and then, the various leaders convened in the building’s main hall to discuss. Throughout the building, roles were distributed, with people given duties such as cooking, looking after children, or being part of the medical team.
This passage captures how the different tribes—and the individuals within each tribe—collaborated to make the occupation of the BIA building successful. The leaders worked together to plan their next political move while individuals took on roles—such as domestic or medical duties—to make it possible for the group of protestors to live and sustain themselves in the BIA building for the duration of the occupation.
Themes
Originally, the protestors’ plan was to be peaceful. The discussions had centered around inviting lawmakers for a feast and song-and-dance performances. Yet they quickly realized that President Nixon had ordered lawmakers to ignore the protesters. As the mood turned sour, Mary—along with many other AIM members—began to realize that they would have to stir up some trouble in order to get the attention they needed.
The protestors determined that peaceful collaboration with the U.S. government was not an option, as the lawmakers refused to meet with the protestors or hear their demands. The implication is that it is impossible to prompt a ruling body to give up its power while acting within the bounds of what that society considers to be respectable—oppressors can easily ignore activists when they are peaceful and undisruptive. In this instance, AIM activists decided that, in order to get the government’s attention, they would have to take extreme action.
Themes
The protestors wrote up 20 demands, all of which were rejected by the few lawmakers who contacted them. Eventually, armed police surrounded the building and demanded that the protestors leave—“or else.” In response, the protestors barricaded themselves in the building, making makeshift weapons for themselves.
The protestors decided on their extreme action. By refusing to leave the BIA building, the activists forced the government to pay attention to them and their demands.
Themes
Each morning the protestors were ordered to leave the building by 6 p.m. Each evening, the protestors remained, ready to fight. Various groups and individual arrived to show their support, from officials to hippies. One of Mary’s favorite moments from the occupation was when Martha Grass, a middle-aged Cherokee woman, spoke to Rogers Morton, the Secretary of the Interior. She furiously spoke out against the problems that she—a Native American woman—faced every day.
As the activists got more attention—from the government as well as various organizations and individuals throughout the country—more people began to show their support. The implication is that the protestors’ continued resistance generated attention, which in turn helped their case, as more people joined in by putting added pressure on the government to concede to the activists’ demands. Meanwhile, the fact that Martha Grass’s speech resonated so much with Mary suggests that the unique experiences of Native American women do not receive as much attention as the experiences of other groups, such as Native American men or white women.
Themes
When Election Week arrived, the federal government agreed to have two high-level officials read and deliberate the protestors’ 20 demands. They promised to pay for the protestors’ trips home and agreed to not prosecute anyone. After the protestors left, the 20 demands were dropped. Yet while “nothing had been achieved” on a legal level, Mary still considers the occupation to have been a victory, as Native Americans “had faced White America collectively, not as individual tribes.”
The protestors’ resistance disrupted the government so much that they (the government) had no choice but to establish some kind of agreement with the activists; simply put, it was the activists’ continued rebellion that gave them power. In the end, the government agreed to at least look over the demands and not prosecute any of the protestors. But as soon as the protestors left, the government no longer felt the pressure to agree to their demands, so they dropped the protestors’ requests. Again, Mary shows that activism—and not passivity—is the only way to achieve success in the fight against oppression. But while the activists did not secure their political demands, Mary still sees the Trail of Broken Treaties as a great success, as the protestors set the precedent of intertribal unity and resistance against white society and the U.S. government.
Themes
