Along with Fred Seitz, S. Fred Singer is one of the two central “merchants of doubt” that Oreskes and Conway focus on in their book. He was an atmospheric physicist who worked…
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Frederick Seitz
Along with S. Fred Singer, the physicist Frederick Seitz is one of the two main “merchants of doubt” whose stories stand at the center of Oreskes and Conway’s book. After working…
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Benjamin Santer
Benjamin Santer is a leading climate scientist who specializes in using advanced statistical methods to analyze atmospheric data. He served as the primary author on a key chapter of the second official IPCC report, and…
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William Nierenberg
William Nierenberg was a successful oceanographer and nuclear physicist who helped develop the atomic bomb during World War II and later founded the George C. Marshall Institute with his friends and colleagues Fred Seitz and…
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Rachel Carson
Rachel Carson was a science writer and marine biologist who rose to international prominence for exposing the environmental dangers of pesticides like DDT in her 1962 book Silent Spring. Oreskes and Conway call her…
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Roger Revelle was a distinguished oceanographer and climate scientist who is best known for being among the first to argue that humankind’s industrial CO2 emissions could cause global climate change. He advised the government extensively…
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Carl Sagan
Carl Sagan was the most famous and influential astronomer of the 20th century. He is best known for popularizing science and researching the conditions that could produce extraterrestrial life. However, he also did significant research…
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I. L. Baldwin
I. L. Baldwin was a bacteriologist and biological weapons researcher who wrote a critical review of Silent Spring in Science in 1962. While he agreed with all of Rachel Carson’s conclusions, he thought that…
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Bert Bolin
Bert Bolin was a respected Swedish meteorologist who wrote an important early report on acid rain in 1971. He later helped found the IPCC and served as its first chair from 1988–1997. He was also…
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Martin J. Cline
Martin J. Cline is a prominent geneticist at UCLA who conducted groundbreaking biomedical research but also seriously violated scientific ethics rules in a 1980 experiment and worked extensively for the tobacco industry. He studied the…
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James E. Hansen
James E. Hansen is a leading climate scientist and global warming activist. He is well-known for his widely broadcasted 1988 testimony to Congress, which helped make global warming a matter of widespread public concern. Robert…
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Robert Jastrow
Robert Jastrow was a prominent NASA physicist who became a prominent “merchant of doubt” after retirement. A strong believer in free market capitalism, U.S. global power, and nuclear proliferation, he founded the George…
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Harold Johnston
Harold Johnston was the leading atmospheric chemist who first discovered that nitrogen oxide emissions from SSTs could deplete the atmosphere’s ozone layer. His finding led to more important work on ozone, including the studies that…
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Gene E. Likens
Gene E. Likens is the pioneering biologist and forest ecologist who led the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study in New Hampshire and first identified acid rain as a serious problem in North America through his research…
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Steven J. Milloy
Steven J. Milloy is a tobacco and fossil fuel lobbyist who has frequently appeared in the media to spread doubt about the dangers of DDT, ozone destruction, secondhand smoke, climate change, and more…
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Dixy Lee Ray
Dixy Lee Ray was a zoologist who served as the chair of the Atomic Energy Commission during the Nixon administration and later became the governor of Washington from 1977 to 1981. She was a firm…
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Sherwood Rowland
Sherwood Rowland was an atmospheric chemist who won the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his research proving that CFCs destroy Earth’s ozone layer. He also served on William Nierenberg’s panel to study acid…
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Thomas Schelling
Thomas Schelling was the Nobel Prize-winning economist who chaired the NAS’s second review panel on global warming. Based on the dubious assumption that future environmental destruction has little significant economic cost, Schelling concluded that…
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Edward Teller
Edward Teller was a prominent but controversial nuclear physicist who played an important role in the development of the atomic bomb. Along with other physicists like Robert Jastrow and Fred Singer, Teller worked to…
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Ronald Reagan
Reagan was the president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. He proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative system and consistently promoted corporate interests over environmental protection concerns. To this end, his administration helped suppress…
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Minor Characters
Russell Seitz
Russell Seitz, Fred Seitz’s cousin, is a lobbyist with links to conservative think tanks who helped spread doubt about Carl Sagan’s research on nuclear winter and the damaging health effects of secondhand smoke.
Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway
The authors of Merchants of Doubt are prominent historians of science whose work focuses on how corporations, politics, and media influence science research and policy in the modern U.S.
Richard Nixon
Nixon was the president of the United States from 1969 to 1974. He took environmental policy concerns relatively seriously and even established the Environmental Protection Agency, but he also dissolved the President’s Science Advisory Committee.