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Literary Devices
Definition of Allusion
In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to other literary works, famous individuals, historical events, or philosophical ideas... read full definition
In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to other literary works, famous individuals... read full definition
In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to... read full definition
Book 1, Chapter 4
Explanation and Analysis—Orpah and Naomi:
Although Bradford limits his use of figurative language in Of Plymouth Plantation, opting for less flowery language in the hopes of conveying objectivity, he makes an exception when it comes to biblical allusions. Knowing Bradford, this is unsurprising: for him, the Bible is truthful, a source of both sage wisdom and comfort.
But though these weaker brethren loved the members of the congregation, personally approved their cause, and honoured their sufferings, they left them, weeping, as it were;—as Orpah did her mother-in-law, Naomi; or as those Romans did Cato at Utica, who desired to be excused and borne with, though they could not all be Catos.
Bradford alludes to the Bible, mentioning Orpah and Naomi as an analogy for the "weaker" and "stronger" members of the congregation. In the Book of Ruth, Orpah leaves Naomi, her mother-in-law, while on the road to Bethlehem. This allusion is particularly appropriate to the situation the Leyden congregation finds itself in—undoubtedly an emotional one, as part of the group prepares to leave the others behind in Holland, most of them never to meet again.
Furthermore, this allusion also applies to the way the "weaker" and "stronger" members of the congregation are remembered in historical accounts. The Plymouth colony and those who settled there have maintained their place in the history books; and their story, like that of Ruth and Naomi, is instantly recognizable by name to many. Comparatively, both Orpah and the Leyden congregation members who stayed behind have faded into historical obscurity.
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Explanation and Analysis—Allusion to Proverbs:
In Book 1, Chapter 4, Bradford outlines his second of several reasons that the Leyden congregation uses to justify their removal from Holland to New England. As Bradford details, the congregation feels themselves splintering apart, all whilst being beset on all sides by persecutors who bear them ill will. Alluding to the Bible, Bradford describes the congregation's decision to leave as a calculated risk:
Therefore, according to the divine proverb (Prov. xxii, 3), that a wise man seeth the plague when it cometh, and hideth himself; they, like skillful and hardened soldiers, were wary of being surrounded by their enemies, so that they could neither fight nor flee, and thought it wiser to dislodge betimes to some place of better advantage and less danger, if any such could be found.
Here, Bradford alludes to a story in the Bible, equating the plight of the Puritans with that of the ancient Israelites. This passage goes further, referencing the book of Proverbs and comparing Bradford's fellow church members to "skilled and hardened soldiers." This excerpt is yet another instance of a Puritan—this time Bradford himself—looking to the Bible for advice in times of difficulty and, in the process, self-identifying with the persecution of God's chosen people.
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Book 1, Chapter 6
Explanation and Analysis—Puritans and Israelites:
Throughout the book, Bradford and his fellow Puritans often compare themselves, through biblical allusion, to the Israelites. This emerges as a motif in the work, critically highlighting the colonists' view of themselves as oppressed peoples chosen by God to populate the "promised land" of New England.
An instance of this motif occurs in Book 1, Chapter 6, where the pastor of the Leyden congregation gives a sermon from 1 Samuel 23:3-4:
“And David’s men said unto him, see, we be afraid here in Judah; how much more if we come to Keilah against the host of the Philistines? Then David asked counsel of the Lord again.” From this text [the pastor] taught things very aptly and befitting the present occasion,—strengthening them against their fears and perplexities, and encouraging them in their resolutions.
Taken within the context of this passage, the pastor is teaching his congregation to directly identify themselves with the ancient Israelites as they decide upon whether or not to leave Holland for North America. In the quotation from 1 Samuel, David's men state plainly that staying in Judah is dangerous, arguing that they might as well face the unknown in Keilah. The pastor implies in this passage that the Leyden congregation faces a similar conundrum, deciding between a known threat in Europe and unknown dangers in North America. Through this allusion, the Israelites' tale becomes an allegory of sorts, through which the Puritans can understand and make decisions about their present circumstances.
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Book 2, Chapter 3
Explanation and Analysis—The Apostle James:
Upset at the lack of promised resources available to his starving fellow colonists, Bradford again makes a biblical allusion in Book 2, Chapter 3:
All this was but cold comfort with which to fill their hungry bellies and a slender performance of his recent promise, and as little did it either fill or warm them as those the Apostle James speaks of, to which he refers.
In this passage, Bradford describes a letter received by the colonists bringing uncertain news of potential ships arriving in Plymouth with supplies. Referring to the "slender performance" of Thomas Weston's promise, Bradford alludes to the Apostle James, one of Jesus's apostles from the New Testament of the Bible. Bradford is referring specifically to James 2:16, which states: "And one of you say unto them, Depart in peace, be ye warmed and filled; notwithstanding ye give them not those things which are needful to the body; what doth it profit?"
Weston's allusion to this passage appears to irritate Bradford. The apostle James states in the above passage the value of everyday acts of service as opposed to hollow words of warmth; yet, having made this allusion himself earlier, Weston seems to have missed the point, neglecting his duty to properly nourish and feed the colonists. Bradford calls out this hypocrisy.
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Book 2, Chapter 4
Explanation and Analysis—Settler's Afflictions:
In the following passage from Book 2, Chapter 4, Bradford laments the lack of food in the Plymouth colony, alluding to a biblical instance of famine discussed in the Old Testament book of Ezekiel:
We see that the affliction of these settlers must have been very great, who not only lacked the staff of life, but all these things, and had no Egypt to go to. But God fed them out of the sea for the most part, so wonderful is His providence over His in all ages; for His mercy endureth for ever.
Describing the settlers' lack of food and suffering during a particularly harsh winter, Bradford compares the settlers to the Israelites, whom the God of the Old Testament promised to provide for. Bradford mentions by name the "staff of life"—called the "staff of bread" in the book of Ezekiel—a metaphor representing God's provenance in times of famine. Unlike the Israelites, the Plymouth settlers have no "staff of life," no magical wellspring from which sustenance flows. Though they trust in God to provide for them, starvation has undoubtedly worn that trust rather thin.
In this passage, the allusion serves Bradford's purpose by emphasizing, through contrast with biblical tales, just how dire a situation the Plymouth settlers find themselves in.
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Explanation and Analysis—Biblical Famine:
In the following passage from Book 2, Chapter 4, Bradford discusses the famine and hardship afflicting the Plymouth colony, building on a previous allusion to biblical famine in the process:
When I think how sadly the Scripture speaks of the famine in Jacob’s time, when he said to his sons, “Go buy us food, that we may live and not die” (Gen. xlii, 2, and xliii, 1); and that the famine was great in the land and yet they had such great herds of cattle of various kinds, which besides meat produces other foods, such as milk, butter and cheese, etc., and yet it was counted a sore affliction.
Bradford alludes to the famine that killed many during the time of Jacob, even quoting a specific passage from the Book of Genesis. Bradford makes this allusion to throw into stark contrast the settlers' situation, which is so extreme that it makes Jacob's famine seem like an easy "affliction" by comparison. The bitterness in Bradford's tone during this passage shines through, evident in the passage he chooses to quote from: "Go buy us food, that we may live and not die." At least in Jacob's situation there was a way to obtain food, Bradford suggests. The Plymouth settlers, on the other hand, have to fend almost entirely for themselves, with almost no social safety net to fall back on.
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