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Chapter 1: Of Civil-Government
Themes
Key
LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in Second Treatise of Government, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work.
Nature, War, and Civil Society
Consent of the Governed and the Role of Government
Power and Absolute Monarchies
The Dissolution of Government
Summary
Analysis
In order to understand political power, Locke claims one must understand the state of nature. According to Locke, all humans in a state of nature—which means they are not part of civilized society—are in a “state of perfect freedom” and equality, and they are each obligated to mutual love for one another. Locke invokes the words of Sir Richard Hooker to make his point, who claims all people are obligated to “justice and charity.”
Locke quotes Sir Richard Hooker, an English priest and theologian, extensively throughout the Second Treatise. Hooker’s view of humans in nature implies humankind is innately peaceful, which is the exact opposite of Thomas Hobbes’s view of humankind in nature, which Hobbes considers to be innately savage. Hobbes’s view was well known in Locke’s day, and in speaking of the state of nature, Locke implicitly refers to Hobbes’s theory and dismisses it.
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Literary Devices
Locke says it is important to remember that a “state of liberty” is not the same as a “state of licence.” While a one is at liberty regarding their person and possessions, they are not at liberty to destroy themselves or anyone else. Nature is governed by the law of nature, which states no one can harm another’s life, liberty, health, or possessions. Humankind is obligated to preserve themselves and others and respect their life, freedom, and possessions.
Locke returns to the law of nature again and again throughout his work, and he claims that one is always obligated to obey this law, even in civil society. Locke also uses the law of nature to refute the idea of absolute monarchies—since no one has absolute power over their own life, that power cannot be given to another.
Themes
No one has the power to invade another’s rights; however, Locke says, everyone has a right to punish criminals of the law. There is no governing body in a state of nature to execute laws, and since humankind exists in nature in a perfect state of equality, everyone has an equal right to punish those who wrong them. It is only in restraint and reparation that one may do harm to another lawfully. The idea of punishment may be difficult for some, Locke supposes, but it is the same idea behind a prince or magistrate putting a foreigner to death. English law has no jurisdiction over an Indian, for example, but when English law punishes such a foreigner, they do so under the law of nature.
Locke’s theory of the perfect state of human equality and freedom in nature again implies that absolute monarchies are illegitimate. While Locke doesn’t mention absolute monarchies directly here, such restrictive government is implied throughout the book. Locke claims everyone is born into a state of nature, which also implies that everyone is born perfectly equal. This again dismisses Filmer’s idea of the divine right of kings and their innate right to rule over the people.
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Literary Devices
When a person breaks the law and becomes a criminal, they abandon the “rule of reason,” and whomever they harm has the right to reparation through a victim’s right to self-preservation. In nature, one may kill a murderer, both to protect future victims and deter other criminals. This belief, Locke says, is rooted in that “great law of nature, Whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood be shed.” By this same reason, one may also seek reparation for lesser crimes, as everyone has executive power in a state of nature.
The “rule of reason” keeps people from acting in a violent way against one another, and it allows them to follow the laws of nature, which assume one should never harm another or their property. However, nature also prescribes to an “eye for an eye” brand of justice, which makes everyone judge and executor.
Themes
Literary Devices
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Locke admits that humankind is prone to partiality and violence and will likely go too far in punishing offenders, which inevitably leads to confusion and disorder. It is government, Locke says, which restrains the violence of humankind. Civil government is the only remedy for the state of nature, and Locke reminds readers that absolute monarchs are only just men.
Locke expects objection as it is impossible to know what it was really like in a state of nature prior to the creation of society, but he reminds readers that there are many societies governed by princes and independent governments who are currently in a state of nature. There will always be, Locke predicts, people living in a state of nature. For those who claim humankind never lived in a state of nature, Locke again offers Hooker’s words. Hooker claims that everyone is bound by the laws of nature, and he further asserts that everyone seeks communion and fellowship, which led to the creation of the first politic society. In this vein, Locke asserts that everyone is in a state of nature until they give consent to enter a politic society.
Locke likens absolute monarchies to a state of nature because there is no central governing body in nature, which means there is no impartial judge to appeal complaints to. In an absolute monarchy, the monarch is in complete control of their subjects, and there is no impartial judge to which a subject can appeal if the monarch treats them unfairly. This lack of oversight places one back into a state of nature, since there is no one but God to appeal to. Here, Locke seems to imply that there will always be absolute monarchies. Locke ultimately disputes absolute monarchies because they do not operate based on the consent of the people, which Locke considers paramount to government—no one can submit to any power or government without their expressed consent.
Themes
