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Literary Devices
Definition of Allusion
In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to other literary works, famous individuals, historical events, or philosophical ideas... read full definition
In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to other literary works, famous individuals... read full definition
In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to... read full definition
Part 2, Chapter 33
Explanation and Analysis—Nothing in Excess :
When Kitty begins to imitate Varenka's behavior and avoid society to fulfill religious duties, the princess worries that her daughter is going to the extreme. With an allusion, Kitty denies her extremism:
‘Il ne faut jamais rien outrer,’ she told her.
But her daughter said nothing in reply; she only thought in her heart that one could not speak of excessiveness in matters of Christianity. What excessiveness could there be in following a teaching that tells you to turn the other cheek when you have been struck, and to give away your shirt when your caftan is taken? But the princess did not like this excessiveness, and still less did she like it that, as she felt, Kitty did not want to open her soul to her entirely.
When Kitty questions whether it is excessive to follow a teaching "that tells you to turn the other cheek when you have been struck," she alludes to a Bible passage—specifically, Luke 6:29: "And unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other; and him that taketh away thy cloke forbid not to take thy coat also." This biblical allusion helps illustrate the novel’s motif of Christian values and forgiveness, particularly in how the characters sin and ask to be forgiven by others and God.
After being rejected by Vronsky, Kitty falls into a bout of depression, making her vulnerable and allowing her to be easily influenced by others. Kitty is very attracted to Varenka's goodness, so she pursues Christian values in an attempt to emulate Varenka and her dedication. The princess scolds Kitty for taking her Christian beliefs and actions to the extreme through imitation and complete selflessness. However, Kitty later realizes that she cannot go through life imitating the actions of others, and she therefore rejects the idea of piety for the sake of piety.
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Part 3, Chapter 27
Explanation and Analysis—The Great Czars:
For a while, Levin, Sviyazhsky, Mikahil Petrovich, and another landowner discuss Russian politics and farming. The unnamed landowner believes that "the emancipation has ruined Russia" and alludes to Russia's great czars to make his point:
‘The point, kindly note, is that all progress is achieved by authority alone,’ he said, apparently wishing to show that he was no stranger to education. ‘Take the reforms of Peter, Catherine, Alexander. Take European history. The more so with progress in agricultural methods. Take the potato—even it was introduced here by force. The wooden plough hasn’t always been in use either. It was probably introduced before the tsars, and also introduced by force.
In this passage, the landowner alludes to Catherine the Great, Peter the Great, and Alexander II as czars who adopted reforms that furthered Russian progress and allowed innovations to take hold. It is possible that this unnamed landowner alludes to these czars for the sake of reference itself in an attempt to subtly flaunt his education and bolster the validity of his opinions. There is also a casualness in the way he names the czars by only their first names, which illustrates his firm belief in Russian superiority, pride, and the way things used to be.
Within the novel as a whole, this allusion serves to illustrate the contrasting beliefs at the time about the emancipation of serfdom. As a result, this allusion adds an element of reality to the story, placing Tolstoy’s fiction within the nation’s history.
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Part 3, Chapter 30
Explanation and Analysis—Levin as Ben Franklin:
After being rejected by Kitty, Levin feels dejected and pathetic. He uses an allusion to Benjamin Franklin to illustrate his vulnerable feelings towards the rejection:
‘And the fact that it is I, Kostya Levin, the same one who came to the ball in a black tie and was rejected by Miss Shcherbatsky and is so pathetic and worthless in his own eyes—proves nothing. I’m sure that Franklin felt as worthless and distrusted himself in the same way, looking back at his whole self. That means nothing. And he, too, surely had his Agafya Mikhailovna to whom he confided his projects.’
Levin alludes to Benjamin Franklin because he (like Tolstoy) used to keep diaries about his moral failures. This allusion is significant both as a character analysis for Levin, who strives so hard to be a good Christian man with manners and values, and as a testament to the Russian curiosity about foreign influence, particularly from Western Europe and America. Like Tolstoy, Levin is also fascinated by American figures such as Benjamin Franklin, further proving how Levin is perhaps a reflection of the author himself.
The allusion also demonstrates how Levin believes that Kitty’s rejection is his own shortcoming. As one of the most moral characters in the book, Levin assumes others’ faults and failures as his own, a behavior that is both humble and deprecating. Like Kitty with religious excessiveness, Levin takes his morals to the extreme, faulting himself for Kitty's behavior.
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Part 4, Chapter 3
Explanation and Analysis—Athenian Nights:
When Vronsky visits Anna, she accuses him of indulging in improper behavior with the actress Thérèses at a party the evening before. The narrative uses an allusion to insinuate Vronsky's licentious behavior:
She held her crochet in her hands, not crocheting but looking at him with strange, shining and unfriendly eyes.
‘This morning Liza came to see me - they’re not afraid to visit me yet, in spite of Countess Lydia Ivanovna,’ she put in. ‘She told me about your Athenian night. How vile!’
‘I was just going to say that ...’
She interrupted him:
‘Was it the Thérèse you knew before?’
‘I was going to say ...’
‘How vile you men are! How can you not imagine to yourselves that a woman cannot forget that?’ she said, becoming increasingly angry and thereby betraying the cause of her vexation. ‘Especially a woman who cannot know your life. What do I know? What did I know?’ she said. ‘Only what you tell me. And how do I know whether what you’ve told me is true ...’
Anna accuses Vronsky of having an "Athenian night," which is an allusion to Roman writer Aulus Gellius's writings known as Athenian Nights or Attic Nights. In Russia, the term "Athenian night" came to represent lascivious behavior. When Anna accuses Vronsky of spending an “Athenian night” with the famous actress, her allusion becomes one of many jealous accusations.
Throughout the novel, Anna becomes progressively more terrified that Vronsky will stop loving her, and she begins to worry whether they still make each other happy. Soon, Anna's fits of rage come out of nowhere, and every little thing starts to set her off. It is ironic, however, that her jealousy must be similar to the resentment that Karenin will feel for the rest of his life.
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Part 7, Chapter 20
Explanation and Analysis—The Face of Fire:
Stiva travels to Petersburg to escape the uptight and stagnant lifestyle of Moscow. With an allusion and simile, the narrative demonstrates how Stiva better fits into a more relaxed, unconcerned society:
Moscow, in spite of its cafés chantants and omnibuses, was, after all, a stagnant swamp. That Stepan Arkadyich had always felt. Living in Moscow, especially around his family, he felt he was losing his spirits. When he lived in Moscow for a long time without leaving, he reached the point of worrying about his wife’s bad moods and reproaches, his children’s health and education, the petty concerns of his service; he even worried about having debts. But he needed only to go and stay for a while in Petersburg, in the circle to which he belonged, where people lived - precisely lived, and did not vegetate as in Moscow - and immediately all these thoughts vanished and melted away like wax before the face of fire.
The simile comparing Stiva's thoughts to wax melting "before the face of fire" alludes to Psalm 68:2: “As wax melteth before the fire, so let the wicked perish at the presence of God.” This simile introduces the idea of good Christian values, which ironically, Stiva is well-known to ignore by way of his many affairs. Based on his behavior and attitude, it is uncertain whether or not Stiva deserves to be forgiven by his family and God.
In this passage, it is difficult to tell whether Stiva considers himself a sinner. He complains about having to constantly worry about Dolly's bad moods, the health of his children, and his family's debt. Are these thoughts sinful enough to deserve God's punishment? Stiva is not necessarily a bad person, as he does worry about his family, but his tendency to run away from his problems makes him untrustworthy.
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