Leviathan: Chapter 42 Summary & Analysis

To understand what “POWER ECCLESIASTICALL” is and who has it, Hobbes says one must understand the time both before and after the “Conversion of Kings,” before which Christianity was not allowed. Before Christ’s Ascension and the later Conversion of Kings, the Apostles had ecclesiastical power, which means they were ordained to preach Christianity and convert others. After the Apostles, ecclesiastical power was again given to “Ministers of God,” or those ordained with the Holy Spirit and authorized to teach and preach God’s Word.  

According to popular Christian belief, the “Person of God” is born three times. St. John says: “There be three that bear witness in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Spirit; and these Three are One.” These three are known in Holy Scripture as the “Trinity.” Hobbes, however, argues three can never be one, and in this case, the Trinity more rightly signifies “three Persons.” God represented by Moses is one person, and God represented by Christ is another. God represented by the Apostles is collectively a third, and in no way are any of these individual men one, other than their shared love for God, which can be said for many.    

In short, ecclesiastical power is the power to teach God’s Word, and Hobbes uses Christ’s power as proof of his argument. As Christ’s Kingdome is not of this world, his ministers can’t command obedience in Christ’s name, unless that minister is also a sovereign king. Christ was sent to the Jews to convince them to return to God and accept Christ as King but not until Judgement day. The time between Christ’s Ascension and the Resurrection is called a “Regeneration,” not a reign. In Matthew 19:28, Christ says: “You that have followed me in the Regeneration, when the Son of man shall sit in the throne of his glory, you shall also sit upon twelve Thrones.” Clearly, Hobbes explains, Christ was not King during this time.

The purpose of Christ’s ministers on this Earth is to convert others to Christianity, but this conversion is not a command, and it is not compulsory. In 2 Corinthians 1:24, St. Paul says: “Wee have no Dominion over your Faith, but are Helpers of your Joy.” Hobbes questions what one is to do if their sovereign power, such as a king or a senate, forbids their subjects to believe in Christ. To forbid one to believe or not believe in any one thing is ineffective, Hobbes says, because one’s faith is a gift from God, and it cannot be taken by any one person or persons.

A sovereign king can tell his subjects what to do and forbid public gatherings and practices associated with Christianity, but a king cannot change what is in his subjects’ hearts. If one is made to renounce Christ “on pain of death,” but Christ really does live in their heart, one can lie without any affront to Christ or the sovereign power, since the Law of Nature says a person cannot be forced to confess something that endangers their life. Plainly put, those who die as martyrs die needlessly. 

The true definition of a martyr, Hobbes says, is one who witnessed Christ’s Resurrection, not someone who dies rather than cast away their love for Christ. In Acts 1:22, St. Peter asks: “must one be ordained to be a Martyr (that is a Witnesse) with us of his Resurrection.” In this definition of the word martyr, even if one did witness Christ’s Resurrection, this does not obligate them to die for the same cause.

The Apostles, like Christ, were sent to preach God’s Word, which makes them similar to a herald, or a crier, or another such person who delivers messages for a king. In such situations, a herald cannot command anyone to do anything and neither could the Apostles. The Apostles were also sent to teach. In the Book of Mark 16:15 it reads: “Goe into all the world, and Preach the Gospel to every creature.” 

Those accepting of God’s Word can be baptized “in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,” which is a sign that a subject will be loyal to God and those appointed by him. Baptism is a type of covenant, but true authority is with an “Earthly Soveraign [sovereign]” until Judgement Day.

Within ecclesiastical power is the power to give the “Keyes of the Kingdome of Heaven” to another and allow entrance into God’s Kingdome. On the flipside, one with ecclesiastical power can deny the keys to one and excommunicate another. To excommunicate is to ban someone from their church, after which other Christians are instructed to avoid them. However, a church has no power to keep anyone out of an assembly, since all places are under dominion of the common-wealth and sovereign power.

If an Apostate is excommunicated, it means nothing and has no effect. Excommunication only matters to those who believe in Christ, and it is practiced as punishment for some transgression. According to I Corinthians 5:11, “if any man that is called a Brother, be a Fornicator, or Covetous, or an Idolater, or a Drunkard, or an Extortioner, with such a one yee are not to eat.” In short, those who are found guilty of such sins are excommunicated.

For one to be excommunicated, they must first be a member of a Christian church. As all churches are equal in power, no one church has authority to excommunicate the members of another. Furthermore, Hobbes argues, if a sovereign power—for instance, a Prince—is a member of a Christian church, that Prince cannot be excommunicated. According to the Law of Nature, a Prince’s subjects are obligated to be in his presence when he commands it, and they can never refuse to sit and eat with him. 

To recap, the power of excommunication can only go as far as the power of Apostles, which is to teach God’s Word and to covert others to his way to ensure “Salvation in the world to come.” Before civil sovereigns became Christians, St Paul visited Jews at their synagogue. In Acts 17:2-3, St. Paul “reasoned with them out of the Scriptures, […] and that this Jesus whom he preached was the Christ.” St. Paul had no authority over the Jews other than to interpret Holy Scripture as he was ordered to do by Christ.

When attempting to convert Gentiles, quoting Holy Scripture was no use, as they did not believe in Christ. Thus, the Apostles used “Reason to confute [the Gentiles’] Idolatry.” In short, the Apostles persuaded the nonbelievers, and when they did, the Gentiles were converted to nothing but a belief in what the Apostles taught. This belief is reflected in the Old Testament when Christ says to the Jews: “Search the Scriptures; for in them yee thinke to have eternall life, and they are they that testifie of me.”

A piece of writing can be said to be “Canonicall” in two ways. The word “Canon” signifies a “Rule” by which one guides their actions. When these “Rules” are given by a teacher or counselor to a student or friend, such words do not have the power to compel one to any given action or behavior. However, when such “Rules” are given to someone who is compelled by another to obey them, they become “Laws.” 

The first piece of Holy Scripture to become law was the Ten Commandments, which God gave to Moses on tablets of stone. God delivered the Commandments to Moses, and Moses delivered them to the people. The laws that God dictated to Israel’s magistrates are known as “Judicall Law,” and Moses also delivered these laws. When Moses delivered God’s Word, these words became laws by way of Moses’s covenant with the people. 

Moses added different laws as the Israelites readied themselves for the land of Promise, and these are known as “Second Laws.” In Deuteronomy 29:1, it is written: “The words of a Covenant which the Lord commanded Moses to make with the Children of Israel, besides the Covenant which he made with them in Horeb.” Moses made each King of Israel keep a copy of the laws, but, Hobbes says, Moses was also the “Civill Soveraign [sovereign].”

There were no other laws instituted until after the captivity of the Jews, after which they entered into a covenant with Moses to accept the “Law of God.” The Old Testament was not law until this covenant, which in effect formed the common-wealth of the Jews. The New Testament, on the other hand, was not considered law until sovereign Christians deemed it so, beginning with Constantine.

But, for the New Testament to be law wherever a common-wealth forbids it contradicts the very nature of a law. Thus, whenever any “Rule” is offered that the sovereign has not endorsed, such “Rule” can only be counsel, not compulsion. In common-wealths where God’s Word goes against the established laws, God’s Word cannot be followed. Of course, Hobbes says, while God’s Word cannot be put into practice or discussed with others in such instances, it may be secretly honored.

Again, the purpose of Christ’s command to the Apostles was to spread word of his Kingdome, not in this world but the next. The Apostles were to teach the people and baptize them as believers, but they did not have power to make Christ’s command into law. Instead, they taught obedience to established laws. As only a sovereign power in the civil sense can make any “Rule” into law, the Holy Scripture within the New Testament can only be considered “Law” in those common-wealths where a sovereign power has willed it so. 

Therefore, ecclesiastical power is limited in many ways. In Acts 15:28, the Apostles say to the Elders: “It seemed good to the Holy Ghost, and to us, to lay upon you no greater burthen then these necessary things.” Those necessary things, according to Hobbes, are to repent, be baptized, follow the Commandments, and believe in God’s Word. 

Ecclesiastical officers during the time of the Apostles were either “Magisteriall” or “Ministeriall.” “Magisteriall” officers preached to nonbelievers and administered sacraments to those they already converted. “Ministeriall” officers included the deacons who saw to the operational needs of the church. The first Magisterial officers were the Apostles, who were chosen by Christ to be martyrs—that is, to witness his Resurrection. The first non-martyr Apostle was Matthias, who was chosen by an assembly of 120 Christians, and then there was Paul and Barnabas, who, by the Church of Antioch, were made Apostles.

A bishop is an “overseer” of the church, and the first Christian bishops were the Apostles. After the Apostles instituted the Elders, they, too, were known as bishops, as was any pastor, teacher, or doctor whose calling was Christ. As Apostles, Matthias, Paul, and Barnabas were authorized by the people, not Christ. Countless bishops were authorized in much the same way, as is reflected in Acts 14:23, which says “they ordained Elders in every Church.” This remains common practice even today, as new bishops are elected in Rome. 

A minister is someone who voluntarily does business for another. Pastors within a church are known as “The Ministers of the Word,” and deacons are responsible for “Serving of Tables,” which means they serve the congregation. The very first deacons were selected by the Disciples, not the Apostles, which can be seen in Acts 6:3. “Brethren looke you out among you seven men of honest report, full of the Holy Ghost, and of Wisdome, whom we may appoint over this business.”

According to Numbers 18:20, God said to Aaron: “Thou shalt have no inheritance in their land, neither shalt thou have any part amongst them.” Thus, the maintenance and support of ministers must come from public revenue in the form of tithes and offerings. Judas Iscariot had a purse to maintain Christ, and many of the Apostles, who were also fishermen, worked in their trade to earn money to keep them. Whenever the Apostles went out to preach, Christ did not allow them to carry any money. 

After the Ascension of Christ, Christians everywhere “lived in Common” with the money earned from their land and possessions, and they supported the Apostles with their offerings. 1 Corinthians 9:14 reads: “Even so hath the Lord appointed, that they which preach the Gospel should live of the Gospel.” Thus, Hobbes argues, it can be concluded that a church’s ministers should be maintained by the people of that church. This maintenance can be determined by each church member individually or by the entire assembly; however, to determine by entire assembly is impossible, as the assembly lacks the power to make a law. So, in common-wealths where the sovereign power does not make laws to determine a minister’s maintenance, or salary, it relies on charity.  

A sovereign power of a common-wealth who is also a Christian has the right to appoint ministers. The sovereign power is the “Supreme Pastor” of their subjects, and they have the power to teach and ordain as they please. Before the Conversion of Kings, ministers and other pastors were selected and appointed by an assembly. Suppose a Christian sovereign, such as a king, passes his authority to ordain ministers within his common-wealth to another sovereign power, like the Pope in Rome. In doing so, the Christian sovereign robs himself of power.

In a common-wealth, all ministers and pastors preach and teach under the authority given to them by the sovereign power, meaning a minister’s authority is “Jure Civili.” The sovereign power, however, derives their own authority to teach and preach Christianity from God, which means a sovereign’s authority is “Jure Divino.” As every sovereign power is also the “Supreme Pastor,” they can preach, teach, baptize, and administer the sacraments. Just because a sovereign power has the ability to do such things does mean they actually do them, Hobbes says. A sovereign is much too busy with the common-wealth; thus, they appoint others below them as ministers. Christ never baptized anyone, Hobbes says, but sent his Apostles and Disciples instead.

The “Imposition of Hands” is an ancient ceremony performed publicly by the Jews, in which it is made clear who, or what, is being blessed or condemned, as Jacob does when he blesses Joseph’s children. Jacob “laid his right Hand on Ephraim the younger, and his left Hand on Manasseh the first born.” In Leviticus 24:14, God orders all the blasphemers to “Lay their Hands on his head, and that all the congregation should stone him.” Christ, too, performs this ceremony in Matthew 19:13: “They brought unto him little children, that hee should Put his Hands on them, and Pray.”  

The Apostles, too, “Laid Hands” on those they ordained or prayed with. In Acts 8:17, Peter and John go to the people of Samaria and “Laid their Hands on them, and they received the Holy Ghost.” The purpose of such a ceremony, especially when ordaining a minister, is to designate the one who is receiving the power. In the case of a sovereign power, they have always had the power to teach and ordain others; thus, there is no need for the “Imposition of Hands.” 

A sovereign power may transfer the management of religious matters to the Pope, or they can transfers the management of religious matters to one minister or assembly within their own dominion. As the power of the Pope in Rome is universally accepted, Hobbes thinks it proper to discuss Cardinal Bellarmine and his books, De Summo Pontifice. The first of Cardinal Bellarmine’s books discusses the best form of government, which Bellarmine claims is a mix of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Bellarmine claims that the best government for a church is also a mix of the three; however, he says that mix should be mostly monarchical.  

Hobbes says he has already discussed that a monarchy is the best form of government, but he argues that a church’s form of government makes very little difference. It is not the purpose of a church to govern by order and command. On the contrary, the purpose of a church is to guide others and persuade through Holy Scripture. Furthermore, the Pope’s power in common-wealths that are not his own is that of a “Schoolmaster only,” not a “Master of Family.” 

In his second book, Cardinal Bellarmine argues that St. Peter was the first bishop in Rome and that all other Popes are his successors. Many people, Hobbes says, dispute this claim. If the first bishop in Rome was the “Supreme Pastor,” that first Roman bishop was Constantine, Rome’s first Emperor, not St. Peter. Bellarmine’s third book argues whether the Pope is the Antichrist. Hobbes, however, can find no evidence to support this argument. The Jews expected a Messiah in the Old Testament, which opened them up to imposters and false prophets. The word Antichrist is properly defined as someone who claims to be Christ but isn’t; or, as someone who denies Jesus is himself the Christ. As the Pope in Rome has done neither of these two things, he cannot be rightly called the Antichrist.

In Cardinal Bellarmine’s forth book, he argues that the Pope’s “Judgements are Infallible” and that Christ gave ecclesiastical power to the Pope in Rome. Bellarmine turns to Holy Scripture to prove his point. In Luke 22:31, Christ says to Simon: “Simon, Simon, Satan hath desired you that hee may sift you as wheat; but I have prayed for thee, that thy faith faile not, and when thou art converted, strengthen thy Brethren.” In Bellarmine’s interpretation, Christ promises that Simon’s faith will not fail as long as that faith follows that as defined by the Pope. Hobbes argues Bellarmine’s interpretation is wrong.

The sovereign power alone has complete authority to define how Holy Scripture is interpreted, not the Pope. As for the Pope’s infallibility of judgement, Cardinal Bellarmine again cites Holy Scripture and John 16:13. “When the Spirit of truth is come, hee will lead you into all truth.” The implied “truth” here, Hobbes argues, is truth as it relates to salvation, not all truth in general. Thus, the Pope’s judgement concerning salvation is likely sound, but his judgement can never be completely foolproof. Even with this distinction, the Pope’s judgement concerning salvation is no more infallible than the judgement of any other devout Christian.   

It has never been claimed by the church or the Pope that the Pope is the sovereign power over all the world’s Christians. Thus, all Christians are not obligated to obey the Pope. The sovereign power of a common-wealth has dominion over everyone in their common-wealth, including the Christians. Therefore, if the Pope claims to have jurisdiction over all the Christians in the world, he teaches those Christians to disobey their sovereign power, which directly contradicts the lessons taught by the Apostles in Holy Scripture. 

To prove the Pope has power to institute laws, Cardinal Bellarmine cites Deuteronomy 7:12: “The man that will doe presumptuously, and will not hearken unto the Priest, (that standeth to Minister there before the Lord thy God, or unto the Judge,) even that man shall die, and thou shalt put away the evill from Israel.” Through numerous biblical passages, Bellarmine maintains that Christ gave ecclesiastical power to the Pope and no one else, but Hobbes disagrees. It is only Christian sovereigns who can claim power to govern from God or Christ. Any minister who has ecclesiastical power derives that power from the sovereign. “All lawful Power is of God,” Hobbes contends, but the absolute power of a Pope is not lawful.   

Whether Christ gave power only to the Pope, or to other ministers, too, is a moot argument, Hobbes implies, if it is considered outside common-wealths where the Pope is the sovereign power. A Pope only has the power to make laws if he is also the sovereign power of that common-wealth. If the Pope is not sovereign power, neither he, nor any other minister (unless they are the sovereign power), has power to make laws.  

According to Hobbes, Christ gave the Apostles and his Disciples the power to preach God’s Word; however, Christ did not give them power to command the people. All ministers and bishops (unless they are the sovereign power) get their power to preach and ordain from the sovereign power of the common-wealth in which they belong. This can be seen in Numbers 11, in which God commands Moses to select 70 Elders and infuse them with Moses’s spirit. As God’s Lieutenant, Moses was the sovereign power of the common-wealth of the Jews, and Moses gave the power to preach and ordain to the 70 Elders when he infused them with his spirit.

Cardinal Bellarmine claims the Church is like a monarchy and the Pope is the monarch, but Hobbes again disagrees. The Pope’s power is “Didacticall” only, and does not extend past this limitation. A Pope can never have jurisdiction, Hobbes argues, in the dominion of another sovereign power. A sovereign’s right to power is derived from the covenant of the people. If a Pope claims supreme power over the Christians in any given common-wealth, he dismisses the contract that joins them together. 

If the Pope has absolute power, which is to say he has been granted such power by a sovereign, the Pope can depose princes and kings whenever he wants for whatever he wants. This is the precise argument offered by Cardinal Bellarmine and many others, Hobbes says, and Popes have historically put such power into practice. For instance, Pope Innocent III and the fourth Council of Lateran decried that any king under the Pope’s command was to rid their kingdom of heretics within one year or face excommunication. People cannot be expected to serve two different masters, Hobbes argues. To avoid this conflict, sovereign powers must keep all their power exclusively, including religious matters, or sovereign powers should give all their power to the Pope. To divide power is to destroy it and the common-wealth.    

Cardinal Bellarmine argues that the “Civill Power” of a sovereign is subject to the “Spirituall Power” of the Pope. Even if this were true, Hobbes says, that still doesn’t mean that the sovereign is obligated to obey the Pope. What Bellarmine means to say in his argument concerning the “Spirituall Power” of the Pope is that Pope has authority to command a sovereign power, and this, Hobbes implies, can never be.

The Pope may very well be Christ’s only true minister, Hobbes says, but the Pope’s power doesn’t exist until Christ’s second coming. And even then, the power wouldn’t belong to the Pope of the present day, but to St. Peter and the rest of the Apostles, who will be the Judges in Christ’s Kingdome. Cardinal Bellarmine also argues that a spiritual common-wealth can take over a civil common-wealth if that common-wealth cannot rightly defend itself. Hobbes again disagrees.

According to Hobbes, there is no such thing as a “Spirituall Common-wealth,” at least not in this world. A “Spirituall Common-wealth” is just like the Kingdome of Christ, which even Christ says doesn’t exist in this world. Christ’s Kingdome will exist in the next world, after the Resurrection. A spiritual body cannot rise until the death of a natural body, Hobbes argues. Therefore, there can be no “Spirituall Common-wealth” for those who are still alive. 

Cardinal Bellarmine also argues that it is unlawful for Christians to obey a heretical king, and that the Pope has the authority to decide what constitutes heresy. Hobbes claims this argument is categorically false. It goes against the Law of Nature for subjects of a common-wealth to disobey their sovereign power. Furthermore, it is the sovereign power, not the Pope, who has the authority to decide what is or isn’t considered heretical in a common-wealth.

Hobbes examines several more examples of the Holy Scripture offered by Cardinal Bellarmine to prove his argument, and Hobbes’s conclusion each time is the same. A Pope can never have absolute power over people, unless he is also the sovereign power of a common-wealth. And, perhaps most importantly, a Pope can never have dominion over another sovereign power or the people residing in said sovereign’s common-wealth.