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Chapter 1. Beginnings
Themes
Key
LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in Mahabharata, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work.
Dharma
Pursuing Enlightenment
Heroism and Warfare
Grief, Loss, and Mourning
Stories and Storytelling
Summary
Analysis
THE HALL. Vaiśampayana continues his story, telling of how the demon Maya acquires great wealth and builds a lavish hall with trees made of gold. He gives gifts to the Pandavas, including a club for Bhima and a conch for Arjuna. The hall has 8,000 Rakshasa guards. Maya then gives the great hall to Yudhishthira, who holds a great feast to celebrate. Seers from around the world come, and some play music.
While Rakshasas most often attack humans in the poem, this passage shows yet again how good and evil aren’t always straightforward. Conches play an important role in ancient warfare, with warriors blowing them to announce the start of battle. The club that Bhima receives foreshadows the duel of clubs he’ll engage in near the climax of the poem.
Themes
Narada visits Yudhishthira. Yudhishthira asks Narada if he’s ever seen such a magnificent hall. Narada describes some of the splendid halls he’s seen. They discuss what it means to be a good leader. Narada says Yudhishthira needs to perform an extreme sacrifice—a royal consecration.
Narada’s suggestion that Yudhishthira perform a sacrificial ceremony symbolizes how a good leader must be willing to make sacrifices for their subjects. The many ritual sacrifices in the poem have both practical purposes (to win the favor of the gods) as well as symbolic ones.
Themes
CONSULTATIONS. After Narada leaves, Yudhishthira contemplates the matter of a royal consecration. He continues to rule successfully, earning a reputation for having no enemies. He asks advisors for advice about a consecration, summoning Krishna. Krishna warns Yudhishthira of his enemies around the world. In particular, there is Jarasamdha, a king who has captured many other kings and wants to sacrifice them to increase his own standing. Krishna believes it isn’t possible to have a royal consecration while the powerful Jarasamdha lives. At first, Yudhishthira thinks it’s too risky to try to kill Jarasamdha.
Jarasamdha, who captures other kings with the intention of sacrificing them, shows how the kings in this era were constantly struggling against one another for power. As Krishna advises Yudhishthira, Yudhishthira’s authority rests not just on his capability as a leader but also on the absence of others who might pose a threat to his rule. And so, this passage sets up one of the first tests of Yudhishthira, as he has to prove his own ability by dealing with a rival to his throne.
Themes
THE KILLING OF JARASAMDHA. Krishna agrees to join Bhima and Arjuna in attacking Jarasamdha. This plan finally pleases Yudhishthira. Krishna, Bhima and Arjuna all travel together to the city of Magadha, which they enter in disguise as unarmed common people. They manage to make their way right to Jarasamdha himself. The king sees through their disguises and asks who they really are. Krishna gives a vague answer and says they’ve come on hostile terms. Jarasamdha asks how he could possibly be enemies with them, since they’re strangers.
In order to overcome Jarasamdha, Yudhishthira and the others use cunning at first, disguising themselves as common people in order to get closer to Jarasamdha. This embodies Yudhishthira’s leadership strategy as a whole—while he believes in dharma and doing things the proper way, he also isn’t afraid to use tricky tactics, particularly in a situation where he believes the ends justify the means.
Themes
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Krishna accuses Jarasamdha of being willing to sacrifice other kings because he is arrogant and views himself above all other Kshatriyas. Krishna finally reveals his identity, as well as the identities of Arjuna and Bhima. Jarasamdha protests that he only imprisons kings he has fairly defeated. He asks to fight Krishna however he likes, either one-on-one or with whole armies. Krishna knows Jarasamdha is fated to be killed but not by Krishna himself. He asks Jarasamdha which one of them he wants to fight. Jarasamdha chooses Bhima.
This passage shows how, particularly for a Kshatriya, a ruler’s legitimacy comes from constantly proving oneself in battle. Although Krishna is one of the most powerful figures in the poem, as the incarnation of Vishnu, he deliberately seems to avoid meddling in earthly affairs too much, trying to help the Pandavas achieve their goals rather than actually fighting their battles for them.
Themes
Bhima and Jarasamdha begin a fierce battle that lasts 13 days straight. Bhima learns about Jarasamdha’s weaknesses from Krishna. Finally, Bhima manages to catch Jarasamdha in a wrestling hold, spin him around 100 times in the air, then bring him down and break his back, killing him. Krishna, who is unhurt after the battle, mounts his flying chariot with Bhima and Arjuna and rides around the city to everyone’s awe. Krishna frees the grateful kings that Jarasamdha captured.
Bhima’s killing of Jarasamdha, with his 100 spins in the air, is a little over the top, reflecting how battles in this poem are often heightened conflicts between figures who loom larger than life. The battles don’t aim for realism in the modern sense, perhaps to convey yet again how most of the poem’s action takes place in a past age of heroes that is remote from the more mundane present era.
Themes
Krishna pardons Jarasamdha’s son and makes him the new king. Krishna, Bhima, and Arjuna all go back to Yudhishthira, who greets them joyfully. Yudhishthira asks Krishna’s permission to finally perform a royal consecration. Yudhishthira prepares a great feast, inviting illustrious Brahmins and Kshatriyas from across the land, then gives them lavish accommodations. Nakula invites Bhishma and Dhritarashtra, who come gladly. Noble guests keep coming and offering Yudhishthira gifts, believing he is full of dharma. At last, Yudhishthira conducts a sacrifice, and the gods are pleased by his rich gifts.
By pardoning Jarasamdha’s son, Krishna shows reason and mercy, perhaps as a way to restore balance after Bhima’s violent actions in the previous passage. One of the ways that Yudhishthira proves his leadership abilities is by providing lavish hospitality for his guests. This shows how generosity is an essential part of the dharma for leaders, and while good leaders must constantly watch out for threats to their power, they must also be willing to share the fruits of their power with their subjects.
Themes
THE PRESENTATION OF THE GUEST-OFFERINGS. Brahmin seers led by Narada come to the sacrificial ground to pay tribute to Yudhishthira. When it comes time to make guest-offerings, Yudhishthira asks Bhishma who should receive the first offering. Almost everyone agrees that Krishna deserves this honor, except for the king of Cedi, who is called Śisupala. Śisupala accuses Yudhishthira of being biased toward Krishna. He leaves the sacrificial grounds, but Yudhishthira follows him. Yudhishthira accuses Śisupala of having ignored dharma with his insults to Krishna. Bhishma also speaks on Krishna’s behalf. Śisupala gets angry and prepares to disrupt the sacrifice.
Śisupala provides a new test to Yudhishthira as he begins to take on his role as a leader. Like many villains of the poem, Śisupala does have a point—Yudhishthira does favor Krishna. Still, what Śisupala fails to realize is that Krishna deserves the honors he receives, and so the real issue is simply that Śisupala is jealous. Because Krishna is such a noble and honorable person, Yudhishthira takes Śisupala’s insults toward Krishna very seriously.
Themes
THE KILLING OF ŚISUPALA. Śisupala continues to cause trouble for Yudhishthira. Bhishma tells Bhima Śisupala’s backstory: Śisupala is born with three eyes and four arms, but a voice tells his parents that these extra features will vanish when he sits in the lap of the person who is going to kill him. He sits on many kings’ laps, until finally his extra eye and arms disappear when he sits on Krishna’s lap. His parents beg Krishna for a boon, hoping Krishna will forgive their son’s sins, and he agrees.
Śisupala’s origin story provides some explanation for why Śisupala dislikes Krishna so much (because he believes one day Krishna is going to kill him). Krishna is both a blessing and a curse for Śisupala—he removes Śisupala’s extra features and offers to forgive his sins, but this comes at the cost of killing him. Accepting death is a major part of the poem, and so perhaps Śisupala’s flaw is that he gets angry at Krishna for one day killing him rather than accepting death as inevitable.
Themes
Later, at the sacrificial ceremony, Śisupala challenges Krishna to a fight. Krishna gives a speech about how Śisupala is evil and has a deathwish. As Śisupala replies, Krishna decapitates him with a discus. Immediately, it begins to rain. Yudhishthira holds observances for Śisupala, then anoints Śisupala’s son as the new king of Cedi. Eventually, the sacrificial ceremony concludes, and everyone disperses. Before leaving, Krishna tells Kunti that her sons have become true rulers.
Although Krishna often refrains from violence, passages like this show that, when he believes it’s right for him to act, Krishna can stop his enemies quickly and decisively. Crucially, despite his disagreements with Śisupala, Yudhishthira still holds observances for his fallen enemy and anoints his son as the new king, showing how a good leader’s dharma involves showing respect even for enemies.
Themes
THE GAMBLING MATCH. Duryodhana and Śakuni linger in Yudhishthira’s great hall. Duryodhana sees a crystal floor in the hall and thinks it’s water, so he pulls up his clothes to cross it. This leads him to make the opposite mistake later, falling headlong into water and causing everyone around him to laugh. Duryodhana is angry and jealous, and so he begins plotting with Śakuni as he leaves the hall. Śakuni tries to convince him that he has no cause for anger at the Pandavas, but he nevertheless assures Duryodhana that he has many allies of his own, like Drona and Karna.
The gambling match is an interesting episode in the poem because, while gambling is traditionally about luck and randomness, the match ends up being an agent of fate, causing preordained events to happen. As this passage shows, Duryodhana’s fragile ego is his downfall, and this small moment of embarrassment (when he mistakes glass for water) ends up having major consequences that reverberate throughout the rest of the poem.
Themes
Śakuni advises Duryodhana that Yudhishthira can’t be defeated in battle, so the best option is to try to challenge him in gambling, particularly since Śakuni himself is an expert gambler. Duryodhana approves of this plan but says they need to seek permission from his (Duryodhana’s) father, Dhritarashtra. They present their plan to Dhritarashtra who is skeptical at first but slowly becomes convinced. He says he’ll make a decision after hearing from his advisor Vidura.
Dhritarashtra is one of the most morally complicated figures in the poem—while he doesn’t have the same malice as Duryodhana, in some ways he is even more responsible for the Kauravas’ growing conflict with the Pandavas, since Dhritarashtra has the power to stop it but chooses not to. Dhritarashtra’s decision to consult the wise Vidura shows that he has some good instincts as a leader, but in the very next passage, he betrays these instincts by ignoring Vidura’s advice.
Themes
Vidura disapproves of anything involving gambling, believing it causes discord. Nevertheless, Dhritarashtra ignores his advice and gives Duryodhana permission to proceed with the gambling scheme. Against his will, Vidura goes to find Yudhishthira and try to start a gambling competition. Yudhishthira fears there may be cheaters at the gambling match but accepts anyway. He rides off to the dwelling of Dhritarashtra for the competition, taking Draupadi and other companions with him.
Vidura disapproves of Dhritarashtra’s order, but he nevertheless feels duty-bound to follow it and go bring Yudhishthira to the gambling match. The poem does not necessarily provide an answer about the morality of such actions—whether it is better to fulfill one’s duty even if it means carrying out an unjust order or whether it is better to defy the order. The concept of dharma is flexible enough that morality can depend on the specific situation, and in later parts of the poem, the wise Vidura chooses not to ally himself with Dhritarashtra.
Themes
Yudhishthira arrives at Dhritarashtra’s palace. He meets with Śakuni, who invites him to throw dice with him. Yudhishthira has misgivings about whether gambling is a noble thing to do, but Śakuni argues that gambling is an art that requires intelligence. At last, Yudhishthira says he’ll never back down from a challenge and agrees.
Śakuni tempts Yudhishthira to gamble by using one of Yudhishthira’s strengths—his intelligence—against him. Although Yudhishthira is ultimately a righteous leader, in this scene he demonstrates that even he is capable of being overcome by pride in a way that’s not so different from Duryodhana.
Themes
Śakuni proceeds to win many of Yudhishthira’s valuable possessions from him through using deceit and gambling. Śakuni racks up an enormous amount of wealth before Vidura intervenes to warn Dhritarashtra about Duryodhana’s grudge against the Pandavas. He suggests that the king disavow the evil Duryodhana and instead embrace the noble Pandavas. Vidura says that even though it seems like Duryodhana is winning now, he is placing himself in a very dangerous position. Duryodhana, however, defends himself, saying Vidura has always sneered at him. He accuses Vidura of being a meddler. The two argue back and forth.
Vidura’s wisdom comes from the fact that he can see the long-term outcome of actions, unlike Śakuni and Duryodhana, who are preoccupied with short-term victories. This passage shows how seeking wisdom and ultimately enlightenment is about seeing the bigger picture. This passage shows how Duryodhana has ample opportunity to change his ways and yet at every turn continues to ignore Vidura’s warnings.
Themes
Meanwhile, Śakuni continues gambling, telling Yudhishthira that he’ll keep going if Yudhishthira still has wealth left to lose. Yudhishthira continues to wager everything he has left, using deceit to win. He runs out of things to wager and decides to wager Nakula next, then Sahadeva. Although Yudhishthira believes he's already gone beyond dharma, he keeps going, wagering and losing Arjuna, then Bhima.
Although even heroic figures sometimes use deception in the Mahabharata, Śakuni goes much further, using cheats to take everything Yudhishthira has. The fact that Yudhishthira keeps going without ever challenging Śakuni or accusing him of cheating shows how honorable Yudhishthira is, perhaps even to a fault.
Themes
Finally, the only thing Yudhishthira has left to wager is himself. He wagers himself and still loses to Śakuni. Now, Śakuni asks for one last throw: for Draupadi. Yudhishthira loses again, and Duryodhana prepares to enslave Draupadi as a maid. Meanwhile, Vidura warns everyone not to celebrate too much because they don’t realize the consequences of their actions. Duryodhana doesn’t listen and sends a page to fetch Draupadi.
Yudhishthira’s gambling addiction shows that even the lord of dharma can be led into making bad decisions. Still, just as Duryodhana was premature to celebrate his victory in an earlier passage, Yudhishthira’s short-term losses here may seem great but end up being not so significant in the long term, where Yudhishthira’s righteous leadership helps him prosper.
Themes
Draupadi refuses to go with Duryodhana’s page, not believing that Yudhishthira really wagered her. Then, Yudhishthira sends a messenger she trusts, and she comes into Duryodhana’s hall. Duryodhana drags Draupadi around by the hair and says he’ll be her new master. One of Dhritarashtra’s other sons, Vikarna, speaks up, asking if everyone really approves of Duryodhana’s behavior and how he took advantage of Yudhishthira’s gambling vice. He begins to gather support, so Karna speaks up in defense of Duryodhana.
This passage shows how, particularly at this early stage, Duryodhana’s grip on his allies was not absolute and many were willing to challenge him about his decisions. Karna’s support is crucial because he is a half-brother of the Pandavas and has a similarly noble status, yet he resents them because he never receives the same recognition as them. Although Karna is nobler than Duryodhana, he similarly falls prey to his own vanity.
Themes
Karna orders one of his brothers to strip the Pandavas and Draupadi. The Pandavas take off their own garments, but when Karna’s brother tries to strip Draupadi, identical new garments keep appearing below her old ones. Many people disapprove of what they see, but because Yudhishthira has such a reputation for dharma, they don’t dispute the results of the gambling match. Yudhishthira regretfully says that he, the other Pandavas, and Draupadi must follow the “dharma of slaves.”
Yudhishthira’s belief in dharma is so strong that he is even willing to accept slavery for himself and his family if it means fulfilling dharma. He is so influential and has built such a reputation for following dharma that his brothers go along with everything, demonstrating how dharma can lay the foundation for trusted leadership.
Themes
Dhritarashtra, who has sympathy for the Pandavas, offers Draupadi a boon. She asks to rescue Yudhishthira from slavery. He gives her a second boon, and she asks to also free Nakula, Arjuna, Bhima, and Sahadeva. Finally, Dhritarashtra says Draupadi is so worthy that she deserves a third boon, but she refuses, saying she believes greed is against dharma.
Although Dhritarashtra’s approval of Duryodhana’s actions led to the enslavement of the Pandavas in the first place, here he changes his mind and recognizes the virtues of Draupadi and the Pandavas. Rather than representing pride, like many of the Kauravas, Dhritarashtra instead represents the dangers of focusing too much on the moment and being swayed by others.
Themes
Bhima is angry about being saved by a woman and wants to fight with Duryodhana’s people. But Yudhishthira advises moderation. Dhritarashtra praises Yudhishthira’s peaceful attitude and tells him this whole gambling competition was a test and that he is free to leave and go back to ruling his kingdom. Yudhishthira and the other Pandavas depart with Draupadi.
Although the poem generally favors Yudhishthira and his moderate attitude, it does not necessarily portray Bhima’s rash temper in a bad light. Instead, the events of the poem seem to suggest that Bhima and Yudhishthira each have a different dharma, and that each (mostly) succeeds in achieving his individual duty.
Themes
THE SECOND GAMBLING MATCH. Disappointed at Dhritarashtra’s decision to let Yudhishthira go, Duryodhana devises more plots against the Pandavas, hoping to use their own pride against them. He tells Dhritarashtra that the Pandavas are surely angry after the previous gambling match, and this makes them dangerous. As a solution, he proposes a new gambling competition, where if the Pandavas lose, they have to go into exile in the forest for 12 years. Dhritarashtra approves of this idea and says they should call the Pandavas back, even if they’re already halfway home.
The passage gives one of the most prominent examples of Dhritarashtra’s weak-willed nature. After finally coming to the right decision about the Pandavas, Dhritarashtra changes his mind almost immediately after the next time he talks to Duryodhana. By allowing a new gambling competition, Dhritarashtra shows that he learned nothing from the previous competition, even though he saw with his own eyes how wrong it was to have the Pandavas in slavery.
Themes
Gandhari warns her husband Dhritarashtra about a prophecy that a chamberlain (officer of a royal household) gave them when Duryodhana was born: that it would be better to kill him immediately rather than let him grow up. But Dhritarashtra is determined to let his sons do as they please, even if it means the end of the Kuru line.
Dhritarashtra refuses to do what’s necessary, unable to face the death of his son Duryodhana. By trying to avoid death, Dhritarashtra ironically sets in motion a series of events that will lead to many, many more deaths, showing the consequences of trying to hide from fate.
Themes
Yudhishthira hears the new challenge and can’t reject it, so he and his brothers head back to Dhritarashtra’s hall, even though Yudhishthira fears the worst. At the hall, Śakuni explains the new competition and how it involves risking 12 years of exile in the forest and a 13th year in disguise in a more populated place. Yudhishthira throws dice with Śakuni and once again loses.
The 12 years of exile that Śakuni wagers are similar to the 12 years that Arjuna spent in the forest. Although it perhaps isn’t prudent for Yudhishthira to accept the new challenge, his willingness to come back proves both his bravery and his ability to think in the long term, believing that it’s worth keeping his honor even if it means trading away 13 years of his life.
Themes
One of Dhritarashtra’s other sons insults the Pandavas after their loss and gloats about their impending exile. Bhima in particular takes offense. All five of the brothers vow to eventually defeat Dhritarashtra’s many sons. Dhritarashtra himself laments the outcome, believing that in 14 years, the Pandavas will come back to destroy him and the other Kauravas.
Dhritarashtra may grieve the outcome of upsetting the Pandavas, but the poem has already made it clear that Dhritarashtra had many opportunities to stop this outcome. He straddles the line between tragic hero and villain, constantly making the wrong choice and regretting it soon afterwards.
Themes
