Stamped from the Beginning

Stamped from the Beginning

by

Ibram X. Kendi

Stamped from the Beginning: Chapter 12: Colonization Summary & Analysis

Summary
Analysis
In 1800, two enslaved people in Virginia—Gabriel and Nancy Prosser—organize a rebellion, aiming to storm the city of Richmond with the help of other enslaved people, poor white workers, and Native Americans. Before they have time to put their plan in action, however, the rebels are betrayed, and Gabriel is captured and hanged. Following these events, a discussion begins among Virginia legislators about the possibility of sending enslaved rebels and other troublesome people to a colony. Jefferson looks into Sierra Leone, which has been functioning as “England’s colony for freed people since 1792.”
The issue of colonization highlights the irrational, even hysterical aversion to the idea of living alongside Black people as equals that exists among so many white Americans during this time. Leaders like Jefferson would rather consider the enormously expensive and impractical (not to mention morally bankrupt) idea of sending enslaved people to a colonized part of Africa than simply allow them to live freely in the U.S.   
Themes
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Segregationists and Assimilationists vs. Antiracists  Theme Icon
The Illogic of Racism Theme Icon
The Sierra Leone plan is unsuccessful, however by this point a large coalition of influential leaders—segregationists, assimilationists, anti- and proslavery figures alike—are invested in the prospect of removing Black people from America. In 1816, an organization is formed to help put this plan in action: the American Colonization Society, led by prominent enslavers. Meanwhile, in 1817, 3,000 free Black men attend a meeting at a church in Philadelphia to discuss the prospect of colonization. They express their vehement opposition to the prospect of returning to the “savage wilds of Africa.” Despite being of African descent, these men have internalized the racist ideas about Africa propagated in the society in which they live. They issue a resolution against the American Colonization Society.
The fact that colonization receives support from a coalition of people with completely different views on race and slavery highlights how these divisions are undergirded by a fundamental similarity: racism. While they may debate each other fiercely and proclaim to hate each other, in a certain sense white abolitionists and slavery advocates have far more in common than they do differences.
Themes
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Segregationists and Assimilationists vs. Antiracists  Theme Icon
Media, Institutions, and the Transmission of Knowledge Theme Icon
The Illogic of Racism Theme Icon
Nevertheless, colonization remains unpopular, as enslavers are concerned it will undermine slavery and Black people refuse to consider moving back unless it is accompanied by the promise of freedom. Still, the Slave Trade Act is passed in 1819, providing funds to send Black people back to Africa. By 1824, American colonizers occupy a region they call Liberia, although only 154 Black people initially travel there. Back in America, slave rebellions continue to take place. In 1818, a free Black carpenter named Denmark Vesey begins organizing an “army” of thousands of enslaved people, inspired by the American, French, and Haitian revolutions. His rebellion is due to take place on July 14, 1822.
The fact that the U.S. goes ahead with colonizing Liberia shows how dangerous the wealth and power of a nation like the U.S. can be. Colonizing Liberia completely upends the lives of the indigenous inhabitants of the region, creating problems that last until the present day. The move also represents the total disregard and disdain for Black life that characterizes both the foreign and domestic policy of the U.S.
Themes
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Segregationists and Assimilationists vs. Antiracists  Theme Icon
The Illogic of Racism Theme Icon
Before it can take place, Vesey’s rebellion is betrayed by Peter Prioleau, a house slave who is freed as a reward and later becomes an enslaver himself. Despite the rebellion being crushed before it happens, it still terrifies enslavers, increasing support for the prospect of colonization. Increasingly, proslavery literature encourages white people to be “on guard” and remain alert to the threat of Black people rising up to “destroy” white society.
The very small minority of Black people (some of whom are themselves formerly enslaved) who go on to become enslavers is one of the most troubling parts of the history of slavery. While cases like Prioleau’s are extremely rare, they show how anyone can participate in the brutally racist institution of slavery.
Themes
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Segregationists and Assimilationists vs. Antiracists  Theme Icon
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In the debates leading up to the Missouri Compromise of 1820, Jefferson initially remains calm, feeling that the dispute was fairly inconsequential. However, by the time the Compromise is settled, Jefferson is deeply concerned that tensions over slavery could lead to a “civil war.” He begins to fantasize about relocating enslaved Africans to the newly acquired Louisiana Territory, spreading them out in the vast amount of land in the hope that the region could effectively “swallow” the problem of slavery. In Congress, he refused to entertain discussions of abolition, convinced that slavery was too profitable to be eradicated. At the same time, he is also convinced that all human beings are born to be free. He becomes increasingly invested in the idea of sending Black people back to Africa.  
This passage highlights Jefferson’s paradoxical way of thinking about Black people. Indeed, it brings to mind the rhetorical question W. E. B. Du Bois will ask of Black people in his 1903 book, The Souls of Black Folk: “How does it feel to be a problem?” Of course, Kendi emphasizes throughout that Black people themselves—both enslaved and free—are not the “problem” at all. The problem exists only in the minds of white racists like Jefferson.
Themes
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Segregationists and Assimilationists vs. Antiracists  Theme Icon
The Illogic of Racism Theme Icon
As the colonization movement continues to gain momentum, it takes on an increasingly religious tone, linking it to the Second Great Awakening. Images of a distinctly white Jesus are mass produced in order to endow white people with religious authority. By 1832, every Northern state has moved to officially support colonization, but the idea remains unpopular among free Black people. Many choose to respond by increasing their uplift suasion efforts, including via the first Black newspaper in the country’s history, Freedom’s Journal. The editors are Samuel Cornish, a preacher, and John Russwurm, the third Black person to graduate from an American college.  
Crucially, by the 19th century, there is a small but growing number of free Black people who are afforded substantial formal education and allowed (limited) access into American institutions. These individuals live in a world that seeks to undermine them at every turn and many turn to “uplift suasion” as a result, attempting to prove that they are the intellectual and moral equals of their white equivalents in a doomed effort to undo racist thinking.
Themes
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Media, Institutions, and the Transmission of Knowledge Theme Icon
The Invention of Blackness and Whiteness Theme Icon
The Illogic of Racism Theme Icon
Articles in Freedom’s Journal often place blame on poor and working-class Black people for “bringing the race down.” Cornish and Russwurm disagree on the question of colonization and this eventually leads Cornish to resign. While support for the ACS continues to increase, the group never achieves is goal of attaining Jefferson’s backing—despite the fact that Jefferson is certainly in favor of colonization. In 1825, Jefferson suffers from poor health and by 1826, he remains housebound with illness. The last visitor he receives the half-brother of Robert E. Lee, who will go on to lead the Confederate army. Jefferson is too sick to attend the 50th anniversary celebration of the Declaration of Independence.
The fact that Jefferson’s last visitor is the half-brother of Robert E. Lee again highlights the idea that the entirety of the white American elite—despite internal differences over issues such as colonization and slavery—have more in common than they do differences. On one level, Jefferson’s career is defined by paradox; yet on another, he acted quite consistently and coherently, in that he always ultimately worked in the interests of whiteness.
Themes
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Aside from Sally Hemings and the children he had with her, Jefferson does not free any of the enslaved people at Monticello. However, by the time of his death, he is so deep in debt that his entire estate is sold after his passing. He dies at home at the age of 83, surrounded by enslaved Black house servants.
The final image of Jefferson on his death bed, surrounded by the people he holds in bondage highlights the perverse intimacy of slavery, wherein the enslaved are forced to perform care for those who brutally subjugate them.
Themes
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Segregationists and Assimilationists vs. Antiracists  Theme Icon
The Illogic of Racism Theme Icon
Quotes