In Robert’s lifetime, Newark underwent a series of rapid changes that reflected the growing racial polarization of the city. One major consequence of these changes was that Newark became a predominately black city for the first time in its history. However, many authorities in the city, such as police officers and landlords, remained predominately white, leading to a pattern of exploitation. (Readers are encouraged to read the sociologist Robert J. Sampson’s book
Great American City for more information on the racism of the American real estate and credit systems.)