Benedict Anderson’s most enduring scholarly contribution remains the succinct but revolutionary definition of the nation he offers in the introduction to Imagined Communities: a nation is “an imagined political community—and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign.” This definition is radical because it presents a transformed understanding of the kind of thing a nation is—Anderson claims that it is an idea that binds people, not a natural political unit. At the same time, people’s instinctual belief that nations are inherent, concrete, and inevitable is proof that the nation is unlike other political ideas: it compels action, loyalty, and sacrifice to a virtually unparalleled extent. Anderson’s novel concept of the nation as an imagined community allows him to explain why nationalism is historically distinctive, more powerful than other political ideologies, and misunderstood by the scholars who preceded him.
Anderson begins by pointing out that nations are uniquely powerful compared to other political formations, which shows that they therefore need to be analyzed in a unique way. He sees the mutual invasions of Vietnam, Cambodia, and China as an example. He interprets these invasions as evidence that nationalism is more powerful than explicit political ideology: even revolutionary Marxist leaders who proclaim a desire to transform the international economy ultimately put the “national interest” first. Nationalism is now undisputedly dominant in the world, to the point where the United Nations is the most important international body, virtually every revolution is nationalist, and everyone simply assumes everyone else has a nationality. This dominance is both a result of and a further cause of nationalism’s emotional power. In fact, this dominance is what makes Anderson’s argument so necessary: many people seem to forget that nations have not always existed, and that national identity is not written into people’s DNA. Rather, nationality is an identity constructed through people’s feelings and cultural beliefs. According to Anderson, this is why nationalist identities are now so dominant.
Anderson goes on to explain that nationalism is different from other political ideologies because nations are cultural phenomena—emotional, imagined communities—rather than intellectual theories. While they are still ideas, nations’ cultural dimension makes them feel and look like concrete and inevitable social groups. Anderson repeatedly returns to the example of dying for one’s nation, which is seen as noble—while parallel situations like dying for liberalism or dying for the city council seem nonsensical. Because citizens believe they make up the nation, they easily grow dedicated to it, for instance using metaphors of family to talk about it—territory becomes the “mother-land,” and fellow citizens are “brothers and sisters.” This shows that the nation’s emotional force is directed “horizontally” at other citizens, and that the abstract idea of the nation relies on (and produces) the idea of a concrete community of individuals who belong to, and constitute, that nation. Meanwhile, other political philosophies besides nationalism are based on ideas—Anderson notes that, upon any further examination, nationalism is fundamentally illogical and will never have any “grand thinkers.” Because it is a feeling and a narrative, not a philosophy, nationalism is more like “kinship” or “religion” than “liberalism” or “fascism.” Indeed, nationalism relies on cultural and artistic forms—songs, novels, poems, holidays, flags, logos, and more—to build identities. Anderson argues that this became necessary after the Enlightenment, which made political structures and human suffering suddenly seem meaningless (because they were not ordained by God). Nationalism filled the void, replacing religion with politics: it used art and culture to bring citizens together on an emotional level, allowing them to see themselves as unified and sharing common goals. In its origins as well as its manifestations, then, nationalism truly is cultural, not intellectual.
For various reasons, however, scholars have failed to see the unique cultural dimension of nationalism. This leads them to underestimate it, both by failing to see its power over people and by only looking at its negative dimension. Anderson argues that one primary reason for this failure is many scholars’ dedication to their own political ideologies (Marxism, liberalism, and others). Hoping their favored ideology will come out on top instead of nationalism, they simply treat nationalism as a set of ideas, conclude that it is illogical (because it is), and decide that it will fall after the “anomaly” passes. But they never look at the fact that nationalism’s power does not rest on its logic: it rests on its emotional and cultural weight. And scholars’ misunderstanding of nationalism leads them to other errors, too, like assuming that nations are necessarily closed to outsiders, and that nationalists are racist against people unlike them. Anderson responds that, whereas the concept of a nation is always closed because it always opposes citizens to noncitizens, the category of citizens is always open. Just as people can learn a new language and thereby join a new communicative community, Anderson explains, people can naturalize into a new nation and join a new imagined community. While racism is common in nationalist contexts, Anderson thinks that the powerful inevitably use it to maintain their power, regardless of political structure. Instead, Anderson points out the positive dimension of nationalism: it gets people to care deeply about others they will never even meet, which (in multicultural nations) can even be an antiracist force.
Anderson’s book is, of course, an attempt to correct the erratic course of scholarship on nationalism. He recognizes that his project is ambitious, but this ambition has been rewarded: few scholars since have dared to write on the subject without accounting for the revolutionary perspective Anderson puts forth in this book.
The Nation as Imagined Community ThemeTracker
The Nation as Imagined Community Quotes in Imagined Communities
Almost every year the United Nations admits new members. And many “old nations,” once thought fully consolidated, find themselves challenged by “sub”-nationalisms within their borders—nationalisms which, naturally, dream of shedding this sub-ness one happy day. The reality is quite plain: the “end of the era of nationalism,” so long prophesied, is not remotely in sight. Indeed, nation-ness is the most universally legitimate value in the political life of our time.
The aim of this book is to offer some tentative suggestions for a more satisfactory interpretation of the “anomaly” of nationalism. My sense is that on this topic both Marxist and liberal theory have become etiolated in a late Ptolemaic effort to “save the phenomena”; and that a reorientation of perspective in, as it were, a Copernican spirit is urgently required. My point of departure is that nationality, or, as one might prefer to put it in view of that word’s multiple significations, nation-ness, as well as nationalism, are cultural artefacts of a particular kind. To understand them properly we need to consider carefully how they have come into historical being, in what ways their meanings have changed over time, and why, today, they command such profound emotional legitimacy. I will be trying to argue that the creation of these artefacts towards the end of the eighteenth century was the spontaneous distillation of a complex “crossing” of discrete historical forces; but that, once created, they became “modular,” capable of being transplanted, with varying degrees of self-consciousness, to a great variety of social terrains, to merge and be merged with a correspondingly wide variety of political and ideological constellations. I will also attempt to show why these particular cultural artefacts have aroused such deep attachments.
In an anthropological spirit, then, I propose the following definition of the nation: it is an imagined political community—and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign.
The century of the Enlightenment, of rationalist secularism, brought with it its own modern darkness. With the ebbing of religious belief, the suffering which belief in part composed did not disappear. Disintegration of paradise: nothing makes fatality more arbitrary. Absurdity of salvation: nothing makes another style of continuity more necessary. What then was required was a secular transformation of fatality into continuity, contingency into meaning. As we shall see, few things were (are) better suited to this end than an idea of nation. If nation-states are widely conceded to be “new” and “historical,” the nations to which they give political expression always loom out of an immemorial past, and, still more important glide into a limitless future. It is the magic of nationalism to turn chance into destiny. With Debray we might say, “Yes, it is quite accidental that I am born French; but after all, France is eternal.”
The idea of a sociological organism moving calendrically through homogeneous, empty time is a precise analogue of the idea of the nation, which also is conceived as a solid community moving steadily down (or up) history. An American will never meet, or even know the names of more than a handful of his 240,000-odd fellow-Americans. He has no idea of what they are up to at any one time. But he has complete confidence in their steady, anonymous, simultaneous activity.
It remains only to emphasize that in their origins, the fixing of print-languages and the differentiation of status between them were largely unselfconscious processes resulting from the explosive interaction between capitalism, technology and human linguistic diversity. But as with so much else in the history of nationalism, once “there,” they could become formal models to be imitated, and, where expedient, consciously exploited in a Machiavellian spirit.
As noted earlier, the strange physical juxtaposition of Malays, Persians, Indians, Berbers and Turks in Mecca is something incomprehensible without an idea of their community in some form. The Berber encountering the Malay before the Kaaba must, as it were, ask himself: “Why is this man doing what I am doing, uttering the same words that I am uttering, even though we can not talk to one another?” There is only one answer, once one has learnt it: “Because we … are Muslims.” There was, to be sure, always a double aspect to the choreography of the great religious pilgrimages: a vast horde of illiterate vernacular-speakers provided the dense, physical reality of the ceremonial passage; while a small segment of literate bilingual adepts drawn from each vernacular community performed the unifying rites, interpreting to their respective followings the meaning of their collective motion. In a pre-print age, the reality of the imagined religious community depended profoundly on countless, ceaseless travels. Nothing more impresses one about Western Christendom in its heyday than the uncoerced flow of faithful seekers from all over Europe, through the celebrated “regional centres” of monastic learning, to Rome.
For the new functionary, however, things are more complex. Talent, not death, charts his course. He sees before him a summit rather than a centre. He travels up its corniches in a series of looping arcs which, he hopes, will become smaller and tighter as he nears the top. Sent out to township A at rank V, he may return to the capital at rank W; proceed to province B at rank X; continue to vice-royalty C at rank Y; and end his pilgrimage in the capital at rank Z. On this journey there is no assured resting-place; every pause is provisional. The last thing the functionary wants is to return home; for he has no home with any intrinsic value. And this: on his upward-spiralling road he encounters as eager fellow-pilgrims his functionary colleagues, from places and families he has scarcely heard of and surely hopes never to have to see. But in experiencing them as travelling-companions, a consciousness of connectedness (“Why are we … here … together”) emerges, above all when all share a single language-of-state.
At the same time, we have seen that the very conception of the newspaper implies the refraction of even “world events” into a specific imagined world of vernacular readers; and also how important to that imagined community is an idea of steady, solid simultaneity through time. Such a simultaneity the immense stretch of the Spanish American Empire, and the isolation of its component parts, made difficult to imagine. Mexican creoles might learn months later of developments in Buenos Aires, but it would be through Mexican newspapers, not those of the Rio de la Plata; and the events would appear as “similar to” rather than “part of” events in Mexico.
In this sense, the “failure” of the Spanish-American experience to generate a permanent Spanish-America-wide nationalism reflects both the general level of development of capitalism and technology in the late eighteenth century and the “local” backwardness of Spanish capitalism and technology in relation to the administrative stretch of the empire.
What I am proposing is that neither economic interest, Liberalism, nor Enlightenment could, or did, create in themselves the kind, or shape, of imagined community to be defended from these regimes’ depredations; to put it another way, none provided the framework of a new consciousness—the scarcely-seen periphery of its vision—as opposed to centre-field objects of its admiration or disgust. In accomplishing this specific task, pilgrim creole functionaries and provincial creole printmen played the decisive historic role.
An illiterate nobility could still act as a nobility. But the bourgeoisie? Here was a class which, figuratively speaking, came into being as a class only in so many replications. Factory-owner in Lille was connected to factory-owner in Lyon only by reverberation. They had no necessary reason to know of one another’s existence; they did not typically marry each other’s daughters or inherit each other’s property. But they did come to visualize in a general way the existence of thousands and thousands like themselves through print-language. For an illiterate bourgeoisie is scarcely imaginable. Thus in world-historical terms bourgeoisies were the first classes to achieve solidarities on an essentially imagined basis.
Insofar as all dynasts by mid-century were using some vernacular as language-of-state, and also because of the rapidly rising prestige all over Europe of the national idea, there was a discernible tendency among the Euro-Mediterranean monarchies to sidle towards a beckoning national identification. Romanovs discovered they were Great Russians, Hanoverians that they were English, Hohenzollerns that they were Germans—and with rather more difficulty their cousins turned Romanian, Greek, and so forth. On the one hand, these new identifications shored up legitimacies which, in an age of capitalism, scepticism, and science, could less and less safely rest on putative sacrality and sheer antiquity. On the other hand, they posed new dangers. If Kaiser Wilhelm II cast himself as “No. 1 German,” he implicitly conceded that he was one among many of the same kind as himself, that he had a representative function, and therefore could, in principle, be a traitor to his fellow-Germans (something inconceivable in the dynasty’s heyday. Traitor to whom or to what?).
Some of the peoples on the eastern coast of Sumatra are not only physically close, across the narrow Straits of Malacca, to the populations of the western littoral of the Malay Peninsula, but they are ethnically related, understand each other’s speech, have a common religion, and so forth. These same Sumatrans share neither mother-tongue, ethnicity, nor religion with the Ambonese, located on islands thousands of miles away to the east. Yet during this century they have come to understand the Ambonese as fellow-Indonesians, the Malays as foreigners.
Nothing suggests that Ghanaian nationalism is any less real than Indonesian simply because its national language is English rather than Ashanti. It is always a mistake to treat languages in the way that certain nationalist ideologues treat them—as emblems of nation-ness, like flags, costumes, folk-dances, and the rest. Much the most important thing about language is its capacity for generating imagined communities, building in effect particular solidarities.
Something of the nature of this political love can be deciphered from the ways in which languages describe its object: either in the vocabulary of kinship (motherland, Vaterland, patria) or that of home (heimat or tanah air [earth and water, the phrase for the Indonesians’ native archipelago]). Both idioms denote something to which one is naturally tied. As we have seen earlier, in everything “natural” there is always something unchosen. In this way, nation-ness is assimilated to skin-colour, gender, parentage and birth-era—all those things one can not help. And in these “natural ties” one senses what one might call “the beauty of gemeinschaft”. To put it another way, precisely because such ties are not chosen, they have about them a halo of disinterestedness.
The fact of the matter is that nationalism thinks in terms of historical destinies, while racism dreams of eternal contaminations, transmitted from the origins of time through an endless sequence of loathsome copulations: outside history.
China, Vietnam, and Cambodia are not in the least unique. This is why there are small grounds for hope that the precedents they have set for inter-socialist wars will not be followed, or that the imagined community of the socialist nation will soon be remaindered. But nothing can be usefully done to limit or prevent such wars unless we abandon fictions like “Marxists as such are not nationalists,” or “nationalism is the pathology of modern developmental history,” and, instead, do our slow best to learn the real, and imagined, experience of the past.
Interlinked with one another, then, the census, the map and the museum illuminate the late colonial state’s style of thinking about its domain. The “warp” of this thinking was a totalizing classificatory grid, which could be applied with endless flexibility to anything under the state’s real or contemplated control: peoples, regions, religions, languages, products, monuments, and so forth. The effect of the grid was always to be able to say of anything that it was this, not that; it belonged here, not there. It was bounded, determinate, and therefore—in principle—countable. (The comic classificatory and subclassificatory census boxes entitled “Other” concealed all real-life anomalies by a splendid bureaucratic trompe l’oeil). The “weft” was what one could call serialization: the assumption that the world was made up of replicable plurals. The particular always stood as a provisional representative of a series, and was to be handled in this light. This is why the colonial state imagined a Chinese series before any Chinese, and a nationalist series before the appearance of any nationalists.
All profound changes in consciousness, by their very nature, bring with them characteristic amnesias. Out of such oblivions, in specific historical circumstances, spring narratives. After experiencing the physiological and emotional changes produced by puberty, it is impossible to “remember” the consciousness of childhood. How many thousands of days passed between infancy and early adulthood vanish beyond direct recall! How strange it is to need another’s help to learn that this naked baby in the yellowed photograph, sprawled happily on rug or cot, is you. The photograph, fine child of the age of mechanical reproduction, is only the most peremptory of a huge modern accumulation of documentary evidence (birth certificates, diaries, report cards, letters, medical records, and the like) which simultaneously records a certain apparent continuity and emphasizes its loss from memory. Out of this estrangement comes a conception of personhood, identity (yes, you and that naked baby are identical) which, because it can not be “remembered,” must be narrated. Against biology’s demonstration that every single cell in a human body is replaced over seven years, the narratives of autobiography and biography flood print-capitalism’s markets year by year.