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Act 1
Themes
Key
LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in Caesar and Cleopatra, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work.
Romanticization of History
Vengeance vs. Mercy
Pragmatism vs. Sentimentality
Empire, Civilization, and Progress
Age, Experience, and Power
Summary
Analysis
Ptolemy Dionysus, the temperamental 10-year-old king of Egypt, follows his guardian, Pothinus, into the loggia at the royal palace in Alexandria where his Egyptian court has assembled to greet him. Ptolemy’s tutor, Theodotus, a wise old man, and Achillas, the general of Ptolemy’s troops, are also there. Achillas is tall, handsome, and respected, though he’s rather dull. Pothinus is a 50-year-old eunuch with a lot of zest and enthusiasm, though he’s rather “common” and ill-tempered.
A loggia is a room with one or more open sides. Ptolemy is even younger than Cleopatra (Shaw’s Ptolemy is 10, as opposed to the historical Ptolemy, who was 15 during his dynastic dispute with Cleopatra), so it’s logical to assume that his guardians are manipulating him to achieve their own political goals, just as Cleopatra’s guardians and Caesar are influencing her. Certainly, the stage directions’ characterization of Pothinus as an enthusiastic, “common,” and ill-tempered man evoke somebody who’s bitter about lacking the power they think they deserve, and who therefore has reason to manipulate Ptolemy for personal and political gain.
Themes
Literary Devices
Ptolemy nervously sits on the throne. Pothinus tells the court that the Ptolemy has an announcement to make. Ptolemy begins his speech, though he sounds as though he's reciting a script, and he frequently turns to Pothinus for help remembering what to say next. Ptolemy tells the court that he is the firstborn son of Auletes the Flute Blower, who was king until Ptolemy’s sister, Berenice, removed him from the throne. She took control of his kingdom until the gods sent a Roman captain named Mark Antony to restore Auletes’s power and behead Berenice. After Auletes’s death, his other daughter, Cleopatra, took control of the kingdom. What’s more, Cleopatra and her witch, Ftatateeta, have cast a spell on Julius Caesar to ensure that he upholds Cleopatra’s illegitimate rule in Egypt. Suddenly awash with “political passion,” Pothinus vows not to let a foreigner unseat the king from his rightful throne.
Ptolemy’s nervous posture on the throne suggests that he, like Cleopatra, is inexperienced and ill-equipped to be an effective leader. That Pothinus must consistently help Ptolemy remember bits of a speech, which his wavering cadence suggests he didn’t even write in the first place, serves as further evidence of his incompetence and inexperience. That Pothinus deems Ftatateeta a witch speaks to the way society treats women. Ftatateeta’s support for Cleopatra to rule Egypt is motivated by the same things that motivate Pothinus—a desire to achieve personal and political ends through her connection to one of the royal heirs to the throne. Yet, he construes her as an unhinged, power-hungry witch rather than a politically pragmatic person like himself.
Themes
Just then, a burly, middle-aged Roman officer named Rufio appears in the loggia and announces Caesar’s arrival. Caesar enters. He wears a wreath on his head to hide his baldness. His secretary, Brittanus, walks beside him. Like Caesar, Brittanus is middle-aged and balding. Caesar approaches Ptolemy, pats him on the shoulder, and sympathetically remarks how boring kinghood must be for a boy Ptolemy’s age. Theodotus introduces Caesar to the other members of Ptolemy’s court. Caesar comments on the lack of chairs in the court. Ptolemy gets up to offer Caesar his throne, but Caesar kindly declines. Rufio spots a tripod with incense burning on it in front of an image of Ra. He picks it up and brings it to Caesar sit on. Other members of the court gasp at Rufio’s “Roman resourcefulness and indifference to foreign superstitions.”
Caesar doesn’t greet Ptolemy as he would a political equal. Like his relationship with Cleopatra, he approaches Ptolemy with patronizing kindness, as one would expect a parent might treat a child. Unlike his interaction with Cleopatra, however, Caesar declines Ptolemy’s offer to sit on his royal throne. Symbolically, this could suggest that Ptolemy’s status as a male engenders more respect in Caesar. Conversely, it could reflect Ptolemy’s involvement in Caesar’s plans to secure Roman rule of Egypt, a goal he will achieve through his relationship with Cleopatra, not her brother. Finally, Caesar and Rufio’s handling of the tripod reflects their blatant disrespect for and ignorance about Egyptian religion. Shaw seems to suggest that such disrespect is a common characteristic of imperial powers. He’s criticizing not only the Romans’ treatment of the Egyptian people, but also his contemporary British Empire’s treatment of their colonies.
Themes
Caesar sits down, prompting more gasps from the Egyptians. He explains to Pothinus that he’s come to retrieve the 1,600 talents (money) that the Egyptians owe him. Caesar’s request stuns Pothinus, who reluctantly admits that the King’s treasury doesn’t have that much money since Cleopatra unlawfully took control of the throne. He also grumbles about Caesar being petty enough to demand their taxes. Caesar reminds Pothinus that “taxes are the chief business of a conqueror of the world” before ordering the court to fetch Cleopatra. The court is under the impression that Cleopatra has run away to Syria and are shocked when she appears in the doorway, hiding behind Ftatateeta.
When Caesar sits down on the tripod, he symbolically exerts dominance over Egypt and Egyptian culture. The action suggests Egypt’s eventual status as a Roman province, which began in 30 B.C.E., years after Caesar’s assassination, with Rome’s annexation of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. The 1,600 talents Caesar mentions refers to the money Caesar demanded from Ptolemy XII 60 B.C.E. in exchange for protection. Ptolemy paid Caesar by taxing the Egyptian people, which led to a revolt that ultimately necessitated Ptolemy to flee Egypt for Rome. Pothinus’s claim that Cleopatra unlawfully took control of the throne is a baseless accusation. In reality, Cleopatra was co-ruling Egypt with her father, (Ptolemy XII), until Ptolemy XII’s death in 51 B.C.E., at which point Cleopatra’s brother, Ptolemy XIII, became co-ruler. It’s worth noting that Ptolemy XIII is the Ptolemy Shaw depicts in the play, though for unclear reasons, the character is listed as Ptolemy XIV in the cast of characters.
Themes
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Caesar tells Cleopatra to act like a queen. She drags Ptolemy from the throne, sits down in his place, and mocks him when he cries. Caesar feel sympathy for Ptolemy and holds his hand, which enrages Cleopatra. She stands up and tells Ptolemy he can have his stupid throne back, if he wants it so badly. When Caesar tries to scare Cleopatra into submission, she tells him that she’s not afraid of him anymore and that he ought to eat her husband, instead. The Romans are shocked to learn that Cleopatra is referring to Ptolemy, her brother. Theodotus explains that Egyptian royals may only marry other royals.
Cleopatra relishes physically dragging Ptolemy from the throne. Her mocking behavior and Ptolemy’s tears reminds the audience of the royal siblings’ young ages and complete ineptitude as leaders. In this scene, they become spoiled children fighting over a toy they don’t want to share rather than political adversaries vying for the power to govern. The Romans’ disgusted response to Cleopatra and Ptolemy’s marriage reveals their intolerance for cultures different than their own, a minor criticism on Shaw’s part of the attitudes that conquering imperialist powers, such as the British Empire, exhibit in the lands they colonize.
Themes
Caesar suggests that Ptolemy and Cleopatra rule Egypt together. However, Pothinus isn’t happy with this arrangement. If the taxes that the Egyptians owe the Romans are the price they must pay for their freedom, Pothinus argues, then Caesar simply should take the money and leave them alone. The Egyptian courtiers applaud and shout “Egypt for the Egyptians!” Tension builds in the loggia. Achillas, the Roman general whom Aulus Gabinus left to command the Egyptian army, announces that he will side with the Egyptians, who outnumber the Romans. Achillas’s betrayal angers Rufio, but it amuses Caesar.
There’s nationalist tension beneath Cleopatra and Ptolemy’s childish squabble over the royal throne. The Egyptians strongly resent having to yield to Caesar and Roman rule. And yet they’ll subtly have to do this if they reinstate Cleopatra’s reign, since Cleopatra is backed and sanctioned by Caesar. Losing the support of Achillas, the commander in charge of the occupying Roman army, should be a major blow to Caesar, who should need all the Roman support he can get. But his casual response to Achillas’s betrayal implies that he knows more than Rufio and has some trick up his sleeve. His casual response also further develops his character, showing him to be a pragmatic, cool person, unlike Rufio, who becomes easily impassioned by Achillas’s betrayal.
Themes
Literary Devices
Caesar sends for his army. They enter the loggia, revealing that that the Romans greatly outnumber the Egyptians. Britannus declares that the Egyptians are all Caesar’s prisoners now, but Caesar disagrees. He argues that the Egyptians are his “guests,” not his prisoners. Caesar’s merciful treatment of the Egyptians disappoints Cleopatra, and she asks him if he will chop off the Egyptians’ heads. Caesar is shocked that Cleopatra would order him to behead her own brother, but Ptolemy stubbornly admits that he'd behead his sister if he had the chance, too. Cleopatra fights the instinct to undermine her new, queenly status by sticking out her tongue at Ptolemy.
Caesar’s generosity toward the Egyptians by sparing them their lives and their freedom shows that he is a just, compassionate leader uninterested in vengeance and unnecessary cruelty. This sets him apart from Britannus and Rufio, whose loyalty to Rome and Caesar drives their desire for the Egyptians and Roman traitors like Achillas to be punished. Indeed,, they seek vengeance even when doing so isn’t politically necessary, given the fact that the Romans outnumber the Egyptians.
Themes
Caesar tells Pothinus that any Egyptian who wants to leave is free to go. Rufio fumes at Caesar’s clemency. Determined to show Caesar that he is still indebted to Ptolemy, Pothinus summons forth Lucius Septimius, a clean-shaven, fit man dressed in a Roman officer’s uniform. Lucius informs Caesar that he beheaded Pompey—Caesar’s rival—upon Pompey’s arrival on Egyptian soil. Theodotus chimes in, eagerly adding that Pompey’s wife and child witnessed the beheading. Theodotus tells Caesar that Pompey’s death enables Caesar to “keep [his] reputation for clemency, and have [his] vengeance too.” Caesar calls Lucius a murderer and laments how Lucius’s actions have forced vengeance upon him. He and Pompey might have been rivals, Caesar argues, but not by their choosing.
The historical figure Lucius Septimius, along with Achillas, really were responsible for Pompey’s assassination. This is the assassination that Ra was referring to in the play’s prologue. The relish with which Pothinus, Septimius, and Theodotus deliver news of the assassination shows that they have a different ethical and political stance on vengeance than Caesar, who resents that Pothinus’s people have forced him to “have [his] vengeance” through Pompey’s murder. Whereas an impassioned, emotional drive for vengeance drove Pothinus to order Pompey’s murder, Caesar adopts a more pragmatic attitude. He argues that it is unethical for him to kill Pompey, since their becoming rivals was arbitrary in the first place.
Themes
Lucius scoffs at Caesar’s grief, arguing that Caesar was okay with exacting vengeance on Vercingetorix’s defeated men, whom he defeated in Gaul. Caesar argues that these casualties were “a necessary protection to the commonwealth, a duty of statesmanship—follies and fictions ten times bloodier than honest vengeance.” Furthermore, he now sees that he was a fool to allow Vercingetorix’s men to perish for Rome. Caesar argues that it’s not right to use these deaths to justify Pompey’s slaying, either. Caesar tells Lucius that he, like the Egyptians, is free to go. Angry that Caesar has let Lucius off the hook for Pompey’s murder, Rufio angrily accuses Lucius of being a Republican.
Lucius is referring to Vercingetorix, king and chieftain of the Arvenerni tribe who led the Gauls in a battle against Julius Caesar during Caesar’s Gallic Wars in 46 B.C.E. Vercingetorix was executed despite having willfully surrendered to Caesar in 52 B.C.E. at the Battle of Alesia. The Roman victory played a major role in the creation of the Roman Empire, and Caesar argues that exacting vengeance on Vercingetorix and his forces was different than Lucius Septimius exacting vengeance on Pompey, since the former was “a necessary protection to the commonwealth,” whereas Pompey’s murder was committed purely out of spite. Further, Caesar even questions whether the killing of Vercingetorix’s men was as necessary as he once thought it was. In this scene, Caesar further establishes himself as a leader who condemns unnecessary bloodshed and other acts of cruelty.
Themes
Caesar puts his hand on Rufio’s shoulder and leads him out of the loggia to cool down. After Lucius exits, Caesar, Rufio, and Britannus form a circle to strategize. Rufio suspects that Lucius would behead them, too, if he had the chance. Caesar cautions Rufio against making assumptions about Lucius and reminds him that they must not fight Lucius’s vengeance with vengeance of their own. Britannus disagrees, but Rufio tells him that Caesar’s mind is made up and there’s no sense in arguing with him.
Caesar leading Rufio out of the loggia to calm down juxtaposes Caesar’s calm, measured, pragmatic personality with Rufio’s impassioned, impulsive personality. Caesar’s detached, objective demeanor allows him to assess the Romans’ current situation more clearly than Rufio. He recognizes Rufio’s suspicions about Lucius’s willingness to harm them as based on Rufio’s anger at Lucius for killing Pompey, more than any indication Lucius has given them that he plans to do them harm.
Themes
Caesar turns around and realizes that Ptolemy is still in the hall. Rufio grabs Ptolemy’s hand to lead him away. Ptolemy asks Caesar if he’s kicking him out of his palace. Caesar addresses the boy kindly and promises not to hurt him. However, he advises Ptolemy that it will be safer for him to be with his own people rather than here, where he is “in the lion’s mouth.” Ptolemy motions to Rufio as he informs Caesar that he’s afraid of “the jackal,” not the lion. Caesar applauds Ptolemy’s bravery, which makes Cleopatra jealous. She asks Caesar if he’d like her to leave with the others. Caesar tells Cleopatra that he’d prefer that she stay. Cleopatra feigns indifference and remains in the loggia.
That Caesar and the others fail to notice Ptolemy is further evidence of Ptolemy’s childish, unintimidating demeanor. He doesn’t have the authoritative presence of a respected ruler; he's a child whom adults overlook. Cleopatra’s irritation toward Caesar for praising Ptolemy’s bravery provides additional insight into the superficial, childish aspect of their fight for the royal throne. It also further develops the kind of relationship she has with Caesar. She wants him to pay attention to and approve of her like a parent might, more than like a romantic partner would.
Themes
Literary Devices
Caesar calls for Ftatateeta. When she appears at the door, Caesar informs her that Cleopatra will hold court here in Alexandria and tasks her with assembling female servants to wait on the queen. Cleopatra tells Ftatateeta that she will have her thrown into the river Nile if she doesn’t follow Caesar’s orders. Cleopatra’s brutality shocks Caesar. This prompts Cleopatra to accuse Caesar of being “very sentimental.” Though, she suggests, if Caesar listens to her, he eventually “will soon learn to govern.” Cleopatra’s unearned confidence stuns Caesar. Ftatateeta flashes him an I-told-you-so grin before leaving to fetch the other servants. Once everyone else has left, Caesar warns Cleopatra that she knows less than she thinks she does.
Another characteristic of Cleopatra’s behavior that exemplifies her youth is her inflated sense of confidence and corresponding lack of self-awareness. When Cleopatra accuses Caesar of being “very sentimental” for protesting her threat to punish Ftatateeta, she acts as though Caesar hasn’t just taught her how to stand up to Ftatateeta in the first place. The knowing look that Ftatateeta flashes at Caesar as she departs positions herself and Caesar as equals—as adults who must humor the antics of a spoiled child.
Themes
Caesar tells Cleopatra that he has work to do and must leave. Cleopatra reminds Caesar that she’s made him a king, and that kings don’t work, which is something she learned from her late father. Cleopatra describes her father as a great ruler who beheaded her sister after she tried to steal the throne from him. He only regained control of the kingdom after a brave, handsome young man—much younger than Caesar, Cleopatra observes—traveled across the desert and slayed Cleopatra’s sister’s husband. Caesar informs Cleopatra that it was he who sent the man, a captain named Mark Antony. Cleopatra eagerly asks Caesar if he thinks Antony might like to be her husband. Caesar says yes, though he’s visibly bothered by Cleopatra’s interest in Antony’s youth. He also warns Cleopatra that many women love Antony. Unmoved, Cleopatra vows to woo Antony and make him kill all the other women.
Cleopatra’s inherited beliefs about royalty not needing to work adds another dimension to Cleopatra and Caesar’s opposite philosophies of power and authority. So far, Caesar has shown himself to be a just leader who strives not to abuse his power and who condemns unnecessary bloodshed. Cleopatra seems ruthless and unprincipled on the outside, but the reality is that she is simply too young and experienced to have formed any personal philosophies about power. Mark Antony served as a general in Caesar’s civil war. According to the Greek historian Plutarch, it was Antony who, in 55 B.C.E., convinced Aulis Gabinus to lead Roman forces into battle against the Egyptian kingdom, who, acting on behalf of Berenice IV, Pharaoh Ptolemy XII’s daughter, had deposed Ptolemy XII. Cleopatra’s instinct to fixate on Antony romantically rather than politically is further evidence of her political incompetence.
Themes
Literary Devices
Caesar informs Cleopatra that her father never paid Caesar the 16,000 talents he owed him for restoring his lost crown. Because Caesar will likely never receive the unpaid debt, he reminds Cleopatra, it’s important that he returns to his work. Cleopatra pleads with Caesar to tell her more about Mark Antony, but Caesar warns her that Pothinus will cut off harbor access if Caesar doesn’t get started on his work. And if nobody can access the harbor, then Mark Antony can’t come to Egypt, either. Hearing this inspires Cleopatra to have a change of heart, and she insists that Caesar start working immediately.
Cleopatra lacks the ability to focus on long-term goals. She’s too irritated by the fact that Caesar is ignoring her to realize the importance of Caesar forming a cohesive military strategy against the Egyptians. Her youthful selfishness blinds her to the urgency of the situation, and it’s only through enticing her with the prospect of seeing Mark Antony that Caesar manages to disengage her. His strategy for getting Cleopatra off his back is akin to a parent coercing their young child to do their schoolwork or clean their room with the promise of sweets or TV time.
Themes
Just as Caesar is about to leave to find Brittanus, a wounded Roman soldier enters the loggia and announces that Achillas’s Roman army has arrived in the city, and the citizens are fighting back. Rufio and Britannus, who have been watching the battle from the balcony, enter the loggia. Caesar relays the soldier’s news. Rufio stares incredulously as Caesar orders him to burn all the Roman ships and leave most of Egypt for the Egyptians, but he reluctantly leaves to deliver Caesar’s message. He returns a while later and tells Caesar that the Egyptians have taken the west harbor and lit five ships on fire. Caesar asks if they’ve gotten to the east harbor or the lighthouse yet. Rufio is annoyed and tells Caesar he ought to do the work himself if he wants it done faster. Caesar gently asks for Rufio’s forgiveness.
Caesar’s apology to Rufio provides further insight into his style of leadership. He treats his underlings with respect and is mindful about abusing his power. Caesar’s command to burn the Roman ships and seize the island of Pharos instead of the main city of Alexandria seems not to be another instance in which Caesar is pragmatically considering long-term consequences in his military strategizing and not abusing power by attempting to acquire more land and power than he needs. It’s likely he has some reason for wanting to leave Alexandria alone—to leave Egypt for the Egyptians, though his underlings can’t figure out why that might be.
Themes
Just then, Theodotus runs in, visibly shaken. He informs Caesar that the library of Alexandria is on fire, but the news doesn’t faze Caesar or Rufio. Theodotus accuses Caesar of being a brutish soldier who doesn’t appreciate “the value of books” and recorded history. Caesar argues that Egyptians’ lives are worth more than any book. Furthermore, the world ought to “build the future with [the past’s] ruins.” He calls out the hypocrisy of Theodotus having such high regard for a few books while gleefully celebrating Pompey’s beheading.
Theodotus and Caesar represent two competing ideologies about history’s value to the present. Theodotus believes that humanity must preserve and learn from its past and accuses Caesar of having no sense of “the value of books,” history, or tradition. Caesar, in contrast, sees Theodotus’s fixation on the past as counterintuitive and detrimental to the advancement of civilization. He thinks that the present task of saving lives should take precedent over saving burning books. Symbolically, this suggests that worshipping the past actually diminishes the quality of life of people in the present and future. Caesar sees progress and setting one’s sights on the future as vital to humanity’s wellbeing.
Themes
Literary Devices
Theodotus leaves to try to save the library of Alexandria, and Caesar orders Pothinus to tell the Egyptians not to kill any more Roman soldiers. Rufio returns and berates Caesar for letting more Egyptians go. Caesar laughs at Rufio’s outrage and reminds him that every Egyptian soldier that they capture requires them to imprison two Roman soldiers to stand guard. Rufio scowls, unhappy about Caesar outwitting him yet again.
Caesar’s ability to set aside his personal feelings about the Egyptian army and Achillas’s betrayal allows him to strategize effectively. Rufio’s outrage and desire for vengeance prevents him from accurately assessing what vengeance will actually require, which is manpower (two Roman soldiers for every captured Egyptian soldier) that would be better allocated elsewhere.
Themes
Cleopatra runs into the loggia, Caesar’s helmet and sword in hand. Britannus trails after her. Cleopatra dresses Caesar for battle. When she removes his wreath, she sees his bald spot and bursts into laughter. When she places the Roman helmet on Caesar’s head, she jokingly remarks that he “look[s] only about 50 in it!” Her remarks visibly irritate and embarrass Caesar.
This scene is played for comedic effect. Cleopatra undercuts Caesar’s image of himself as a brave soldier by calling attention to his bald spot, a sore point for Caesar, who we’ve already seen is self-conscious about his age. In another amusing twist, Shaw renders the laurel wreath Caesar wears upon his head, typically a symbol of military success and victory in ancient Rome, a comical toupee of sorts—not a symbol of Caesar’s bravery but of his self-consciousness.
Themes
Caesar and his men prepare to head to battle. He asks Cleopatra if she’s scared. She says no, but not convincingly. Caesar orders her to go to the battle and watch him take Pharos island: if she is to be Queen, it’s important for her to watch battles. Before Caesar, Rufio, and Britannus can leave, Cleopatra tells them that they won’t be able to leave Egypt, since the Egyptian army, headed by Theodotus, is emptying the harbor with buckets to extinguish the fire at the library of Alexandria. Rufio scolds Caesar, insisting that it was his clemency that allowed this setback to happen. As usual, however, Caesar is one step ahead of the game. He tells Rufio that he wanted to distract the Egyptians with the fire to buy his army time to seize the lighthouse. Rufio scowls at Caesar’s cleverness. Cleopatra waves as Caesar and his men depart.
Caesar outwits Theodotus, who is too distracted by the burning library of Alexandria to prevent Caesar from capturing the lighthouse on Pharos. Not only does this lead to a literal victory for Caesar, but it’s also a symbolic victory of Caesar’s progressive outlook over Theodotus’s embrace of the past. Theodotus’s adherence to the past stands in the way of saving his people and culture and advancing their civilization, leaving him and his people vulnerable to the outside threat of Caesar’s Roman army. Caesar’s refusal to choose the past over the present and future gives him the upper hand.
Themes
