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Chapter 2
Themes
Key
LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in The Great Influenza, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work.
Leadership and Crisis
Truth, Free Press, and Propaganda
Science vs. Nature
Education, Research, and Institutions
Summary
Analysis
At Bellevue, Welch’s course became very popular, attracting medical students from schools across New York City. His success inspired similar classes at other medical schools, but Welch still struggled to make a living.
The fact that Welch’s class succeeded even when he didn’t have many resources to work with emphasizes that sometimes, the most important resource in the classroom is simply a good teacher.
Themes
Germ theory was ultimately what offered a path forward against infectious diseases. It overcame rival theories like “miasma theory” and “filth theory,” both of which more or less suggested that disease came from some sort of impurity in the environment. One of the biggest victories for germ theory over competing theories was in 1860, when Louis Pasteur proved that living organisms caused fermentation.
Like the four humors theory, miasma theory and filth theory make a certain amount of logical sense, but they don’t accurately describe how disease affects the human body. The hallmark of correct theories, like germ theory, is that they have practical applications with proven results, as is the case here with Louis Pasteur’s work.
Themes
One of germ theory’s most persuasive advocates was Robert Koch, who proposed “Koch’s postulates.” These postulates were used to determine if a microorganism causes a given disease. In 1882, Koch discovered the microorganism behind tuberculosis, one of the deadliest diseases at the time.
Koch’s work with tuberculosis in many ways sets the groundwork for later investigations into influenza, since both are respiratory diseases. Though Koch found the microorganism behind tuberculosis, finding the pathogen behind the 1918 influenza pandemic will prove to be much harder.
Themes
Cholera epidemics swept through the U.S. and Europe in the 18th century. In 1883, news broke about a new epidemic in Egypt that threatened Europe, so Koch went down to investigate. He was able to isolate the cholera bacillus and turn his theories into hard facts. Some experts still resisted germ theory, but it was on its way to widespread acceptance.
As with Pasteur, Koch proved the value of his theory by showing that it had actual, predictable applications for the real world. The concept of breaking things down to a single variable to test—in this case, isolating the cholera bacillus—is an essential part of the scientific method.
Themes
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In 1884, despite offers from Bellevue to stay on the faculty, Welch finally got his offer to come to Hopkins and accepted it. He was 34 and tasked with changing American medicine forever. Hopkins continued to assemble a faculty of people like Welch, including Franklin Mall.
For a doctor and for someone in academia, 34 was (and still is) a relatively young age to take on a major leadership role. The fact that Welch had already built such a name for himself emphasizes how extraordinary his career was.
Themes
Mall was another American doctor educated in Germany. At the University of Chicago, he had $4 million (a huge amount of money at the time) and was trying to build his own institution like Welch was. Mall tried to get Welch to come to Chicago, but when Welch declined, Mall was ultimately so interested in working with Welch that he came to Hopkins.
The fact that Mall came to Hopkins because of Welch again emphasizes the role that personal relationships and connections played in science. Barry details these scientists’ lives not only to fill out their stories, but because in many cases, these biographical details have a direct impact on their scientific achievements.
Themes
Welch’s early days in the lab at Hopkins were unexceptional, and he failed to make any major discoveries. One of Welch’s real talents was his judgement: his ability to see the most important points when reading a paper or meeting a new person. His other main talent was his ability to inspire those around him. He had a positive attitude and a teacher’s spirit, which encouraged those around him to achieve great things. He remained distant and sometimes mysterious to his students, although for the most part they liked him.
This passage again examines what success means in science and how Welch’s experiences didn’t necessarily conform to how success is typically defined. Welch’s biggest successes were largely interpersonal and organizational, and while this impact is harder to quantify than a publication history, it’s implied that it’s no less important in determining scientific achievement.
Themes
