Stamped from the Beginning: Chapter 29: Massive Resistance Summary & Analysis

Emmet Till is one of the victims of the massive resistance that follows the Brown v. Board of Education ruling. Despite the brutal opposition of white Southerners, “the civil rights movement ke[eps] coming.” Du Bois is surprised to see that the 27-year-old “figurehead” of the Montgomery Bus Boycott is a Baptist preacher, Martin Luther King, Jr. The two men exchange letters in which King expresses his admiration of Du Bois’s work. King is also an admirer of E. Franklin Frazier, whose book Black Bourgeoisie caused significant controversy when it came out in 1957. In the book, Frazier portrays Black women in a demeaning light while also critiquing the assimilationist, consumerist tendencies of the Black bourgeois class. In this sense, Kendi writes, Frazier echoes Elijah Muhammad and his emerging Black separatist group, the Nation of Islam.

When the governor of Arkansas deploys the National Guard to stop a high school in Little Rock from desegregating, Eisenhower declares the incident a disaster for the U.S.’s global reputation. He sends federal troops to enforce desegregation and protect the Black students nicknamed the “Little Rock Nine.” At age 90, Du Bois is hopeful about the possibility that the country is coming to embrace socialism and reject colonialism. After being reissued his passport, he visits China and the Soviet Union. He comes to feel more critical of King and his emphasis on Christianity. In the first ever televised presidential debate, Democrat John F. Kennedy tries to mention civil rights as little as possible and names the civil rights opponent Lyndon B. Johnson as his running mate. 

As the campaign of sit-ins at segregated Southern businesses continues, Du Bois grows disillusioned with the civil rights movement’s demands. He feels that only a radical program of economic redistribution will actually change the status of Black people in the U.S. Just before turning 93, Du Boise journeys to Ghana and soon grows sick from a prostate infection. His 94th birthday dinner is attended by President Kwame Nkrumah, the leader of the now-decolonized Ghanaian state. Back in the U.S., Northern universities slowly begin to admit a small number of Black students, while Southern universities are desegregated by force.

In 1958, Alabama Governor George Wallace becomes one of several influential politicians who deliberately escalate their racist rhetoric in order to gain popularity. In a famous speech, he proclaims: “segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever.” In doing so, he comes to symbolize American racism as a whole, even though he actually represents only one side of it. Assimilationists continue to argue that both discrimination and Black people themselves are responsible for the problems they face—but Kendi points out that, in actuality, Black people have long been taking far too much of the burden of responsibility for these issues themselves. Instead of blaming white people and racist structures, the assimilationist Black elite “polic[e] the masses” and fixate on respectability.

After being arrested while protesting in Birmingham, Alabama, King writes his famous “Letter from the Birmingham Jail,” in which he critiques the patronizing attitude of the “white moderate.” At the same time, he conflates defiant antiracists with segregationists. By this point, a growing number of Black people have become disillusioned with King’s nonviolence and emphasis on persuasion. Instead they turn to Malcolm X, who firmly rejects assimilationist thinking and advocates for the necessity of self-defense. Concerned with the ongoing damage racist discrimination is causing to the U.S.’s global reputation, the Kennedy administration moves to pass civil rights legislation. The day before King delivers his iconic “I Have a Dream” speech at the March on Washington, Du Bois dies in his sleep.